Australia

From Encyclopediak

Australia, the smallest of the continents, is situated in the Eastern Hemisphere between the Pacific Ocean on the east and the Indian Ocean on the west, and between 10° 39' and 39° 11' 15" south latitude and 113° 5' and 153° 16' east longitude. The Southern Ocean bounds it on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the north. Australia lies east of the central portion of South America and west of the southern part of Africa, its southwestern corner being approximately in the same latitude as the Cape of Good Hope. The continent is directly south of Japan and the Philippine Islands.

SIZE The greatest extent of the continent from north to south is 1970 m. and from east to west 2400 m. The area is 2,946,691 sq. m., or about seven-ninths the area of Canada, making Australia the second largest possession of the British Empire. It is more than five times the size of the Union of South Africa and nearly one and one-half times the size of India. The form is that of an irregular oval, with a broad indentation on the south and a deep indentation on the north. The coast line has an extent of 8850 m., and is the shortest in proportion to the area of that of any continent.

COAST WATERS The coast has a few deep indentations. On the north is the great Gulf of Carpentaria, extending 480 m. inland and having an area of over 16,000 sq. m. West of this gulf, in their order, are Van Diemen's Gulf, Anson Bay, Queen's Channel, Admiralty Gulf, Brunswick Bay, Collier Bay, Buccaneer Archipelago and Exmouth Gulf, which marks the western limit of the north coast. On the west there are only a few small indentations, the most important being Geographe Channel, Shark's Bay, Hamelin Pool and Geographe Bay. On the south, the name Great Australian Bight is given to the archlike curve occupying the central part of the coast. Extending inland from the eastern part of the Bight are Spencer Gulf and St. Vincent Gulf, separated by York Peninsula. South of St. Vincent Gulf is Encounter Bay, and in the southeast is Port Phillip, at the head of which the city of Melbourne is situated. On the east coast are Botany Bay, Moreton Bay, on which Brisbane is situated, Hervey Bay, Keppel Bay, Halifax Bay, Princess Charlotte Bay and Shelburne Bay. Torres Strait separates the continent from New Guinea, and Bass Strait lies between Tasmania and the mainland.

ISLANDS Although Australia lies directly south of and in close proximity to the groups of large islands forming the East Indian Archipelago, it is both geographically and geologically separate from them. The islands belonging to the continent are few and, with the exception of Tasmania, small. Those worthy of mention are Wellesley Island, near the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Bathurst and Melville islands, northeast of Van Diemen's Gulf, Kangaroo Islands, south of York Peninsula, and Flinders Island, north of Tasmania. Tasmania is the largest and most important island, and forms one of the states of the Commonwealth.

Extending for over 1200 m. along the northeast coast and lying from 10 to 100 m. from the shore is the Great Barrier Reef, a coral formation constituting a natural breakwater and giving ships a safe channel, extending almost from Sydney to Torres Strait.

PHYSICAL FEATURES Australia has a typical continental structure comprising a primary highland system, a secondary highland system and a great central plain. The continent, as a whole, is a low plateau with a central depression.

Highlands. A series of mountain ranges extend along the entire eastern coast, culminating in Victoria, where in Mt. Kosciusco, 7328 ft., and Mt. Townsend, 7260 ft., are found the highest elevations in the continent. Other peaks in this range over 6000 ft. in altitude are Mt. Bugong, Mt. Feathertop, Mt. Holtsman and Mt. Cobberas. Several names and Leichhardt are the chief streamy are applied to different sections of these ranges. North of Victoria they are called the Muniong, and north of Muniong' they are known as the Monaro. The most northerly ranges are low, with now and then a peak rising- to 4000 or 5000 ft. Above the tree line all the peaks are destitute of vegetation. With few exceptions the elevations on the western part of the continent are scarcely worthy the name of mountains. The Darling- Range follows the coast from Pt. D'Entrecasteaux to the Murchison River, and north of this stream there are a number of detached ranges farther inland that separate the coast region from the central plateau. In these ranges are a few peaks of 4000 ft. altitude. In general, these western mountains are clothed with vegetation to their summits.

Lowlands. Extending across the continent from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Murray River is a great alluvial plain over 500,000 sq. m. in extent. This plain constitutes one of the most distinguishing features of the interior of the continent. The vast region west of 135° east longitude and north of Musgrave Range, and generally known as the Australian steppes, has a desertlike appearance. It contains many flat-topped hills and extensive rock-covered plains. South of this region, around Lake Eyre, are some sections which are below sea level, but the higher plateaus reach altitudes varying from 1500 to 3000 ft. This steppe region extends westward to the western highlands and has an area of about 400,000 sq. m. The entire region is arid and desertlike. For a more detailed description, see the subhead Surface in the articles on each of the Australian states.

RIVERS AND LAKES The Murray and Darling rivers, constituting the Murray system and having a navigable mileage of over 1700 m. during high water, are the largest streams in the continent. They drain most of the southeastern portion, and during the dry season are fed by melting snows on the mountains, so that they. have a constant flow. The Flinders flowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria. The Daly flows into Anson Bay, and flowing north into the Indian Ocean are the Fitzroy, the Fortescue, the Ashburton, the Lyons, the Gascoyne and the Murchison. The rivers of the great interior plateau find no outlet to the sea, but discharge into lakes or lose themselves in the sand. Many of these streams are dry except during the rainy season.

The chief lake region of Australia consists of a series of depressions in the south-central part of the continent, the largest portion lying in the State of South Australia. The largest lakes in this region are Lake Eyre, Lake Torrens, Lake Gairdner, Island Lake and Lake Frome. In the southwestern part of the Northern Territory is Lake Amadeus, and in the southern part of Western Australia is another region containing a number of lakes, but they are smaller than those in the first region. Since these lakes have no outlet to the sea, their waters are salt or brackish. During the dry season the smaller ones become marshes or mere pools. Borings in numerous localities in the great alluvial plain reveal a large supply of underground water, which is easily brought to the surface, and is being used more and more each year for irrigation.

GEOLOGY AND MINERALS Geologically considered, Australia is the oldest of the continents, and large portions of it were dry land long before the surface of Europe appeared above the sea. The continent is a part of a still more ancient plateau, consisting of archasan rock, which occupies nearly all of the western half. This is the oldest rock known (See GEOLOGY). This rock also outcrops in New South Wales, Victoria, New Zealand and Tasmania, leading to the supposition that these islands and Australia were formerly one land mass.

At some time the sea must have extended across the continent from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Spencer Gulf, occupying what now constitutes the great alluvial plain and separating the continent into two large islands.

The study of the physical features of the eastern half of the continent shows many geological changes, during which coal and other minerals were deposited, and, later, that glaciers covered a part if not all of the land. There are no active volcanoes, but numerous extinct craters and lava beds tell us that at a comparatively recent date volcanic activity was widely extended and intense.

MINERALS. Gold is widely distributed, and Australia is one of the largest gold-producing regions in the world. From the discovery of gold in 1851, the mines of Australia had yielded over $3,000,000,000, and the prosperity of the states of the Commonwealth is attributed very largely to their gold mines. Gold is found in all the states, but the mines of Victoria have been the largest producers. Until quite recently it was not supposed that Western Australia contained any gold, but in 1882 gold was found in the Kimberley district, and now this state has become the leader in gold mining.

Silver, either alone or in combination with other minerals, occurs in all the states, but the most valuable mines are in New South Wales. Copper is also found in all states and is mined in New South Wales; Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. There are large deposits of tin in Queensland and the Northern Territory, but the most important mines are in Queensland. Iron is widely distribuuted, but is not yet extensively mined. Antimony, platinum, lead, asbestos, diamonds and other precious stones are found in varying quantities.

Australia is well supplied with coal, all varieties from lignite to anthracite being found. Brown lignite occurs in Victoria, but it is not of great value. A black coal of much better quality is found in New South Wales in large quantities. The coal fields of Queensland exceed 24,000 sq. m. in extent, and coal mining is an important industry in that state. Petroleum is found in New South Wales in connection with a variety of cannel coal, from which kerosene is obtained by distillation.

CLIMATE The northern part of Australia, including a little over one-third of the area, is in the torrid zone, and the southern two-thirds, in the south temperate zone. The climate is remarkably even, because of the absence of high mountains and because of the extensive dry area of nearly 1,000,000 sq. m. in the interior. The summers are hot and dry, especially in the south, but the temperature is particularly exhilarating, and the climate is everywhere healthful. The eastern part of the continent is well watered, as are the northern and western portions, but the southern part along the Bight and the vast interior are arid, having an average rainfall of from five to ten inches.

PLANT LIFE A number of the native plants bear a close resemblance to a past geological age, and all species show marked adaptation to the dryness of the climate. In general, the leaves are small, In many species they are thick and their surfaces so constructed as to prevent evaporation. Many plants contain essential oils, which aid in conserving moisture, while in others the leafstalk is twisted so as to present the edge of the leaf to the sun.

The eucalyptus, or gum tree, is the most widely distributed of any trees. In the most favorable localities trees of the largest species exceed 400 ft. in height. They are valuable for lumber, for their oils, resin and bark, all of which are important commercial products (See EUCALYPTUS). Next to the eucalyptus in importance are the acacias, of which 250 species are found on the continent (See ACACIA). There are also a number of palms peculiar to the continent, but confined mostly to the northern part. The bottle tree, which takes its name from the remarkable shape of the trunk, and the fern and grass trees are found only in Australia.

The mallee scrub, which is a dwarf eucalyptus, and the mulga scrub, a thorny acacia, are common in the arid regions. Here also is found the spinifex, or porcupine grass, so called because of its many spines. Wherever this grass is abundant it prevents the passage of man or animals. It does not serve for fodder, and, so far as known, is entirely worthless. The salt bush covers extensive areas in the arid region and is valuable fodder for sheep and other animals. It possesses remarkable drought-resisting powers and makes valuable pastures of large areas that would otherwise be worthless.

In Western Australia there are many beautiful flowering plants. There are also many orchids, sedges, sandalwoods and members of the Mint Family widely distributed through the continent. Many lilies are found, but the grand lily, with flowering stalks 30 ft. high, eclipses all the others. The waratah tree, whose crown of crimson flowers can be seen at distances of a half mile or more, is also remarkable. Along the eastern coast the vegetation contains many types that have been transported from the islands in the Indian Archipelago. These types have grown so profusely that they have crowded out the native species, making the plant life of this region somewhat different from that in other parts of the continent.

ANIMAL LIFE The native animals of Australia are as peculiar as the plants. Among those specially worthy of mention are: the kangaroo, of which there are a number of species, ranging in size from animals six feet tall to those no larger than a rat (See KANGAROO) ; the duckbill platypus, which is a connecting link between .Birds, Reptiles and Mammals (See DUCKBILL) ; the dingo, or wild dog; the Tasmanian wolf and Tasmanian devil, carnivorous animals provided with pouches for carrying their young, and confined to the island for which they are named.

Among other animals are numerous species of venomous and harmless snakes, two species of crocodile and numerous turtles. The emu and the cassowary are the largest birds. The Australian crane, the black swan, the bower bird and the brush turkey are other birds peculiar to this continent. In addition to these, there are many birds of bright plumage and of varying size, making in all about 750 Species. There are also many insects common to tropical and semitropical climes. The surrounding waters abound in fish. The taking of whales, which was formerly an important industry, is still continued to some extent. Sharks are numerous, and seals are occasionally found on remote parts of the coast. Food fish in great variety are found all along the coast.

INHABITANTS The natives are characterized by dark brown, almost black skin, straight or wavy hair and full beard, and well-formed limbs, though the muscular development is less than in most races. When discovered by early explorers, the Australians were in a state of savagery. They made no pretense at tilling the soil, were without clothing and dwelt in huts of the rudest construction. Their number was never known, but the best authorities estimate it to have been about three times the present number, which is about 30,000. Like all savage races, the Australians have suffered from the inroads of civilization, since they do not take kindly to civilized life. Most of those now living are protected by the states in which they reside, being placed on reservations, upon which white men are forbidden to hunt or otherwise to destroy what forms a source of livelihood to the natives. Once a year, or oftener if necessary, the government distributes supplies to these reservations.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS The Continent of Australia is divided into the following political divisions: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Northern Territory and Western Australia. The Commonwealth also includes the Island of Tasmania. Each state is more fully treated under its title.

EARLY HISTORY We do not know by what Europeans Australia was first seen, but traditions of a land referred to as Terra Anstralis reached Europe long before the continent was known to Europeans. The Spaniard De Torres discovered the strait that bears his name in 1606, and Tasman, sent from Batavia in the Dutch East Indies in 1642, discovered the Island of Tasmania and explored the east coast of the continent for some distance. About this time the Dutch also explored the western coast. The first English explorer to visit the continent was Dampier, in 1688, but it was more than a century before the English made use of this discovery. In 1769-1770 Capt. James Cook, a celebrated English navigator, explored the southeastern coast and discovered Botany Bay, which he so named because of the great number of plants found in that region. In 1788 the first English colony was founded there. Gradually the interior was explored, the number of settlers increased, and other colonies were established, which in time grew into states. See AUSTRALIA, COMMONWEALTH OF.