Canada

From Encyclopediak

Canada. (Probably from the Iro-quois word, kanada, meaning cabin) is a British dominion of North America with the United States on the south and the Arctic Ocean on the north, and extending east and west from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. It includes all of North America north of the United States except Alaska, Newfoundland and Labrador. In size Canada is larger than the United States including Alaska and is nearly equal to all of Europe. It measures 2,700 miles in greatest length from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and 1,600 miles from the north to the south, a total area of 3,729,665 square miles, of which 126,329 are under water. The capital is at Ottawa. Canada is divided into nine provinces and two territories. It is a member of the League of Nations and is a self-governing member of the British commonwealth of nations with an agreement with the mother country to have its own diplomatic representative at Washington. Although Canada is the neighbor of the United States along a frontier of 3,000 miles, the two countries have avoided international friction and unfriendliness and have set for all the world a unique and wholesome example of international goodwill and non-fortification. For more than 100 years under treaty agreements, neither the United States nor Canada has maintained a soldier, fort or other means of defense at any point along their common border. Only two or three light-draft vessels, carrying a gun or two, ply the boundary waters, on customs duty for each country under treaty agreements.

THE PEOPLE. In 1760 there were 70,000 French people scattered about the vicinity of the lower St. Lawrence; and its tributaries; thirty years later there were 20,000 inhabitants in Upper Canada and 125,000 in Lower Canada. In 1861 the total population, not counting the Indians, was 3,090,561. Ten years later it was 3,689,257. The last census was 8,788,483. This means that the vast domain of Canada has a relatively small population and suggests the possibilities of future development. A remarkable development, indeed, has already taken place from the natural wealth, but the Canadian resources are still mainly awaiting exploitation. It is interesting to note that the population of Canada in the forty years from 1871 to 1911 increased about as much as during the whole of the preceding hundred years. Somewhat more than half the increase since 1871 came in the decade from 1901 to 1911. In 1791 the total population was 150,000,000 of which only one-sixth were in Upper Canada (Ontario). In 1871, when the first census of the Dominion was taken, it was found that Ontario had one-half the total. During each succeeding decade, the population of the Dominion increased by 500,000, but from 1901 to 1921 it showed an increase of nearly four times the normal.

POPULATION. Canada ranks as the third largest country in the world, being exceeded in size only by Russia and China. It forms one-third the land surface of the whole British Empire. It stretches from the same latitude in which Rome is located, to the frozen and silent regions of the Arctic Circle and the fastest express trains require five davs to cross the country from Halifax to Vancouver. Yet this vast empire has a population about the same as Metropolitan London, and about one-fourth of its area is yet unexplored.

CITY AND RURAL GROWTH. In 1901 the urban population of Canada was only 37.6 per cent of the total, while now it has risen to 49.6 percent. In the last twenty years the urban population increased many times as much as the rural. Indeed, in the provinces of Ontario. Quebec, British Columbia and The Yukon, the rural population has actually decreased. The growth of cities has been greatest in the western provinces. The city of Calgary in Alberta increased 994 per cent in the first ten years of its existence. Vancouver's 272 per cent and Winnipeg's 221 per cent. The total urban population is 4,352,380 and the total rural population is 4,436,103.

ORIGINS. Canada has been one of the new world melting-pots for the peoples of the earth. Every part of the civilized world is represented among the inhabitants. Assimilation has been accomplished slowly and much of the immigration has been recent. The first settlers were the French, and even now in the province of Quebec there are hundreds of communities where French language and French customs are the same as they were nearly two centuries ago. The early settlers of Nova Scotia were chiefly Scottish. In New Brunswick, Ontario and the eastern townships of Quebec, the first settlers were the United Empire Loyalists from New England. In the Western provinces we find a share of Scotch, English, Irisli and French besides representatives of many other nations. The total foreign born population is 890,282. The Indians, of course, are the original Canadians.

RELIGION. The Church of England was at one time the established church of Canada, but there has been no established church in the Dominion for sixty years. Since the cession of Canada to the British in 1763, the Roman Catholic Church has been allowed the privilege in the Province of Quebec of collecting tithes from its own adherents. This is a legal obligation in Quebec, but it may be escaped by public renunciation of membership in the Roman Catholic Church.

VARIETY OF PHYSICAL FEATURES. If it were possible to rise in an airship to a sufficient height to view the vast area of Canada, stretching from the Great Lakes on the south to the frozen silences of the Arctic Circle, one would behold every variety of topography—mountainous in the west and northwest, and, gradually attaining sea levels toward the east. In the west the Rocky Mountain range crosses from north to south, with the lower coast range which characterizes the entire Pacific regions of both North and South America. In the east there is a remnant of the Laurentian range (see 1599) beyond Quebec reaching into Labrador. Canada is penetrated from the north in the eastern half by Hudson Bay, a body of salt water which, with the connecting strait is about 1,000 miles long. Numerous rivers of navigable size flow into the several oceans— the St. Lawrence dividing Canada and the United States for many miles on the eastern side flows into the Atlantic and in its lower readies is very wide and accommodates the deepest draught ships; the Yukon river which rises in Canada, close to Alaska, then flows across Alaska into the Bering Sea to the Northwest; the Mackenzie which drains into the Arctic Ocean and others of lesser size but of important commercial and power values. In an airship journey over Canada, starting from the east, at the Gulf of St. Lawrence we would behold a region where almost every inhabitable acre had been hewn from the virgin forest. We would fly over an old worn-down mountain system known as the Laurentian Plateau, stretching west beyond Lake Superior. To the southwest we would sec the Maritime provinces, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, nearly cut off from the rest of Canada by the northern part of Maine. The rest of eastern Canada comprises the wealthy and historic provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Continuing our air journey, we travel over a rich agricultural region—the three prairie provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. For 800 miles we cross gently rolling, cultivated plains of rich fertility stretching from just cast of Winnipeg to the Rockies. As we approach the foothills of the Rocldes, if the air is sufficiently clear, we will discern towering mountain peaks at a distance of eighty miles. Crossing these mountains, we descend into British Columbia, a densely forested region on the Pacific Ocean. Turning our gaze north, we will see in the distance, beyond the 60th parallel of latitude that forms the boundary of British Columbia and the three prairie provinces, the scarcely habited wilderness of the Yukon and Northwest Territories. This region about one-third the entire area—belongs to the trapper and the miner.

THE SURFACE IN DETAIL. For the purpose of a detailed surface study, we will divide the country into five regions, each characterized by its own geological formation. These divisions are: (1) the Appalachian region, embracing the southeastern corner; (2) the Valley of the St. Lawrence; (3) the Laurentian Plateau, west to Hudson Bay: (4) the central plain; and (5) the Rocky mountain region. Only the general description of these five divisions will be attempted here as a more detailed account is found in the articles on the respective provinces under the sub-head Surface.

APPALACHIAN REGION. Here, looking down upon the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and the southeastern part of Quebec, we view a beautiful landscape in which mountains, hills, valleys, streams, highly cultivated farms, towns, hamlets and forests blend into a harmonious picture. On the coast we find numerous indentations furnishing excellent harbors, the most important being the Bay of Flinely and the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, the great waterway to the interior. The highlands consist of hills and low mountains, which arc the northern extremity of the Appalachian Mountain system. The main axis of this system runs through the southeastern part of Quebec, where it is known as the Notre Dame mountain and culminates in Gaspe Peninsula, where the highest altitudes do not exceed 400 feet. All the elevations have been worn down by erosion until they are now rounded summits with gently sloping sides, except in a few instances where we note abrupt cliffs. The valleys between the subordinate ranges are broad, with gentle slopes, and usually contain one or more meandering streams of water.

ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY. Along each bank of the St. Lawrence river and extending about 600 miles upstream from the city of Quebec is a flat and fertile plain. In the province of Quebec the larger part lies south of the river and comprises the fertile region extending from Montreal to the eastern township. In Ontario it comprises the region betwen the Laurentian Plateau and Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. The entire plain has a highly fertile soil and climate well suited to various branches of agriculture.

LAURENTIAN PLATEAU. This region surrounds Hudson Bay, extends westward to meet the central plain and on the east includes the northern part of Ontario and Quebec and the Labrador Peninsula. It is the oldest part of the North American Continent. Its general shape is that of an irregular V or U, with a broad opening at the mouth. It is the largest surface division and covers an area of 2,000,000 square miles. In most of the regions granite and gneiss predominate. It also contains extensive deposits of valuable ore, including iron, silver, cobalt, nickel and gold. The mountains in this Plateau which formerly were much higher, have been reduced by weathering through the ages so that there are now no lofty elevations except along the coast of Labrador, where several summits of the Nacheak Mountains reach an altitude of about 6000 ft. In general, the surface is hilly and the valleys contain a large number of lakes. Although usually spoken of as a Plateau, a large part of it has an altitude of less than 1000 ft. This great lowland portion extends all around Hudson Bay, varying from 100 miles to 500 miles in width, then southwestward to Lake Winnipeg.

CENTRAL PLAIN. This includes the northern portion of the Great Central Plain of North America, which extends from Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. At the United States boundary it is 800 miles wide, but it gradually narrows until at its northern extremity it is about 300 miles in width. It lies between the Laurcntian Plateau and the Rocky Mountains and includes most of Manitoba, a part of Saskatchewan and the greater part of Alberta. The lowest point is at Lake Winnipeg where the altitude is only 800 ft. It rises by successive steps until in Alberta it attains an altitude of 4500 ft., where it meets the footliills of the Rocky Mountains. Nearly all of this vast region is well watered and covered with a fertile soil capable of producing abundant crops of wheat, oats, barley, hay and vegetables and affording pasturage for extensive herds of live stock.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. Here we find a region celebrated for the grandeur of its scenery, its magnificent forests, fruitful valleys and mountain streams. This section extends from the main range of the Rocky Mountains, to the Pacific Coast and is about 400 miles wide. It includes nearly all of British Columbia and all of Yukon territory. The Rocky Mountains on the east and the Coast ranges on the west are its two principal mountain ranges. Between them are numerous short ranges, chief among them being the Selkirk Mountains, the Caribou Mountains and the Gold ranges. These ranges are irregular in their trend and are separated by deep valleys of precipitous sides, through which flow rushing mountain torrents. Most of the peaks are crowned with perpetual snow and on many of them we find glaciers (see Selkirk Mountains). The coast ranges in former times projected beyond the present coast line, and it was by the partial submergence of this outlying range that Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands were formed. The coast is rugged, irregular and deeply indented by fiords, closely resembling those of Norway. The highest altitudes in Canada occur in this region along the coast near the southern boundary of Alaska. Mt. Logan for example, is 19,539 ft. high and Mt. St. Elias has an altitude of 18,000 ft. In the Rocky Mountains there are a number of peaks from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. high; Mt. Robson has an altitude of 13,068 ft. In the Selkirks we observe several peaks of 10,000 ft., and the highest in the coast ranges vary from 7000 to 9000 ft.

WATERWAYS. The waterways of Canada constitute one of the most remarkable of its geographical features. Exclusive of Hudson Bay, the Bay of Fundy, the Gulf of St. Lawrence and nearly all other tidal waters, the Dominion has a water area of 126,329 square miles, or rather in excess of the combined area of the states of New York, New Jersey and South Carolina. Viewing the topography from our great altitude, we observe thousands of lakes varying in size from those hundreds of miles long and 1000 feet or more deep, to mere ponds known only in their immediate locality. Most of the Canadian lakes are characterized by irregular shore and clear water and many of them contain numerous islands. Georgian Bay alone is estimated to have over 30,000 islands, nearly all of which are clothed with rich verdure. With the exception of Lake Michigan, which lies wholly within the United States about one-half the area of the Great Lakes falls within the Canadian boundary. The Laurentian Plateau and the region bordering upon it on the west are the most thickly strewn with lakes. Next to the Great Lakes those of the most importance are Great Bear lake with an area of 11,821 square miles; Great Slave lake, 10,719 square miles; Lake Winnepeg. 9,459 square miles and Lake Winnipegosis, 2,086 square miles. In all there are nine lakes over 100 miles long and thirty-five which are more than 50 miles long. With scarcely an exception the lakes have outlets and are fresh water. Quill and Old Wives lakes in southern Saskatchewan and a few others have no outlets and are blackish. The lakes in the Rocky Mountain region are long, narrow and deep.

RIVERS. The St. Lawrence with its broad estuary extending far inland, is the most important river of Canada and one of the most important rivers of the world. The main stream is 755 miles long, but its real source is the St. Louis river, which flows into Lake Superior. The length of the St. Lawrence to the source of the St. Louis is 1900 miles. Its chief tributaries are the Saguenay, 405 miles long to the source of the Peribonka; the St. Maurice 325 miles long; the Ottawa 685 miles long and the Richelieu 210 miles long North of the Divide which separates the basin of the St. Lawrence from that of Hudson Bay and draining Labrador Peninsula are the East Main, the Big and the Great Whale rivers flowing into James and Hudson Bays; the Ungava and the George, flowing into Ungava Bay; and the Hamilton flowing into the Atlantic. On the west side of Hudson Bay the general trend of the surface is to the northeast and its chief rivers flowing into this body of water on the west are the Churchill and the Saskatchewan-Nelson. Farther east are the Albany, the Moose and the Harricanaw. The Red and the Assiniboine flow into Lake Winnipeg and are drained by the Nelson into Hudson Bay. The Mackenzie-Athabaska is the great system flowing into the Arctic Ocean. The former, having a length of 2,525 miles (to the head of Finlay river) is the longest river wholly within the Dominion. To the east of the Mackenzie are the Coppermine and the Great Fish rivers. The Peace river, having a length of over 1000 miles drains the northern part of Alberta into the Atliabaska. The largest streams of the Rocky Mountain region are the Columbia, which flows into the United States, and the Yukon, which flows into Alaska. Other streams worthy of mention wholly in British Columbia are the Skeena, the Thompson, the Kootcnay, the Moose, the Stikine and the Liard.

CLIMATE:, Canada is a land of bright days, the normal annual hours of sunshine averaging over 2,200 in the interior provinces and 1800 in those fronting on the Atlantic and the Pacific.The world-wide notion that Canada is in all parts very cold and Arctic in its weather characteristics is not justified. The southern part has a climate which corresponds with that of the northern tier of the United States. Gradually the climate shades off into the severe weathers which are found in the northern region. The climate varies, therefore, all the way from the north temperate to the very frigid Arctic. The influence of the Japan current modifies the temperature of the west coast as it does that of south Alaska, lesser degrees of cold being-experienced there than in the east. The variation of cold, therefore, is from an average of about 50° in British Columbia, to the desperately low temperatures of the far north. Climatically, Canada has been described as "A country of dry frost in winter, and a fruitful heat in summer, with numerous delightful climates between." If placed upon the map of Europe, Canada would extend from Rome to North Cape. In other words, the country has a range of latitude extending from parallel 42° to the Arctic region. The presence of the large bodies of water, Hudson Bay and the Great Lakes modifies the extremes of temperature of large areas and, also, exerts an important influence upon the rainfall. The Maritime provinces enjoy an equitable climate with moderate winters and summers free from extremes of heat, and with ample rainfall for agriculture. The climate of Quebec is varied, being cooler in the northern than in the southern part, but over the entire province the winters are cold and the summers warm and pleasant. The southwestern part of Ontario has mild winters and a higher average temperature than other parts of the province. In the northern part of the province, the winters are severe, but in the southern part they are about the same as in northern New York; snow usually remains on the ground here from December to March or April and the rainfall during the summer is ample for agriculture. The northwest provinces have the typical continental climate of the region, the chief characteristics being a dry atmosphere, clear skies, a short hot summer and a cold dry winter. In the western part of Alberta, the winters are mostly mild owing to the influence of the Chinook winds (see Chinook). The stock usually winters without shelter, feeding on the native grasses. The rainfall varies from 13 to 20 inches, but most of the rain falls during May and June, when most needed by the growing crops. In the southwestern part of Alberta there is an area where irrigation is necessary, but with this exception there is enough moisture for successful agriculture. The long sunny days of summer enable grains and vegetables to mature as far north as the Peace River valley. Along the Pacific Coast the climate is mild and equable, similar to that in the northern part of Great Britain. This is due as already stated to the influence of the prevailing southwest wind from the Pacific. In some sections along the coast the rainfall is heavy, averaging 100 inches on the island of Vancouver. East of the coast ranges the mean temperature is somewhat lower than on the coast, but the winters are mild. On the west side of these mountains and the ranges farther cast, the rainfall is abundant and the mountains are clothed with dense forests, hut on the east slope the rainfall is light and the mountains are nearly barren. Temperature varies with altitude, but everywhere the summers are cool and invigorating. The northwest territories, Labrador and the region immediately surrounding Hudson Bay have a cold, inhospitable climate and are almost uninhabitable. Generally speaking, the climate of Canada throughout its vast area is remarkable for its invigorating and health-giving qualities.

ANIMAL LIFE In spite of the vast extent of Canada and the climate, the native vegetation not as varied as one would expect. In the north-great range and northeastern part of the Dominion we find an arctic or sub-arctic type of plant life. Here is a scarce vegetation including only mosses, lichens and a few willows and hardy herbs. Between Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean lies almost a desert area; this large region has come to be known as the barren ground or tundras. Just south of this section we find an entirely different type of vegetation. Dense forests once covered the St. Lawrence valley and the Maritime provinces, but large areas have been cleared with axe or fire, and other areas have been deforested by natural causes. We still find, however, large domains of standing timber and this constitutes one of the great natural resources of eastern Canada. The most important species are white spruce, white pine, balsam, fir and hemlock among the cone-bearing trees; and birch, maple, basswood, oak, elm, and ash among the hardwoods. This section also has many wild flowers and wild fruits. The prairies of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta are almost treeless. In Manitoba there are patches of spruce, fir, cedar, poplar, paper-birch, ash and other trees, but they are of little importance except locally. In southern Saskatchewan and Alberta the only native trees are poplar, willow and cottonwood, and even these are confined to the banks of the rivers. North of the Saskatchewan river the vegetation becomes plentiful, and from Hudson Bay to the Rocky Mountains we find a broad belt of spruce, tamarack and poplar. The trees are not as large as those of the eastern section nor are they so important commercially. The dry summer heat seems to prevent the growth of late flowers, even of the hardy daisy, but a few spring flowers are found on the prairie, notably the crocus. The greatest forests remaining in Canada are in the Pacific or mountain belt. There are thousands of square miles of virgin timber, giant trees, many of them 200 to 300 feet high. Fir, spruce, hemlock and cedar are most common in these regions.

ANIMALS. Students of animal life have divided Canada roughly into several belts or regions which they describe as circumpolar (meaning around the Pole), and we are told that the animals found in these belts are of the same species as those found in Europe and Asia at the same distance from the North Pole. No distinctively Canadian animals are known. It is true that the beaver is so common in Canada that it is considered characteristic, but the beaver is also found in other countries, though in ever-decreasing number. The larger animals are still represented in great variety in the unsettled region. In the Hudson Bay district, the muskrat and the caribou are common. They are also found further south in winter, and the woodland caribou is found in all the provinces except Prince Edward Island. The moose ranges the forest and a few bison, the American buffalo, roam the plains, where once they could be counted by the hundreds of thousands. The Virginian deer and the blacktail deer are still plentiful in all southern Canada, but the wapiti or American elk which once wandered in great bands from Quebec to the Pacific and from the Peace river tar southward into the United States, has been almost exterminated. Only a few small bands still remain on the prairie. Another native of the plains is the pronghorn antelope. The black bear is found in nearly all parts of Canada except along the Arctic shores where the polar bear makes his home. The grizzly and brown bears have their haunts in the Rockies and the other Western mountains. The most characteristic mountain animals are the big horn or Rocky Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, the latter noted for their sure-footedncss and agility, even on the sharpest peaks and the most precipitous slopes. Among the other large animals still to be found in various parts of the Dominion are the timber wolf, the coyote, the puma (or cougar) and the red fox. Silver fox, lynx, bear, otter, martin, fisher mink and skunk are the most important and numerous fur-bearing animals. Hares, rabbits and squirrels are plentiful in many parts. All the fur-bearing and game animals arc now protected by law from hunters during stated seasons, but their number nevertheless seems to be steadily decreasing and the fur trade is becoming less and less important.

BIRDS. An immense variety of birds, most of them characteristic of northern climates, are found in Canada; but the majority are migrant and come to their breeding grounds in the northern parts of Canada only in the summer. In the west particularly the game birds or wild fowl are numerous. Their breeding grounds extend from southern Manitoba and the western prairies even to the Arctic Ocean. Besides many ducks and geese, there are gulls, petrels, albatrosses, fulmars, cormorants and other sea birds. Golden eagles, bald-licaded eagles, owls, hawks, ravens and crows are common. In parts of Ontario the wild turkeys and quail are seen, and in British Columbia the California quail and the Mountain partridge are found. There are many varieties of grouse, including the prairie chicken and the so-called partridge. The Canada jay, the waxwing, grosbeak, snowbunting, and sometimes the raven remain in Canada throughout the winter. Songbirds are found everywhere, especially in regions which are still well wooded; robins, orioles, thrushes and catbirds sing in the Canadian forests, and the English sparrow, only recently introduced, is already a nuisance in many towns. One of the prettiest of the birds and also the smallest is the ruby throated humming bird which is everywhere even in the mountains.

Development of the vast resources of the Dominion has been delayed by the adverse climate and the vast distances. In the Frigid Zone of the far north favorable hunting grounds are provided and minerals are also found within this region. It is known that the Arctic Islands contain large deposits of bituminous coal. Just south of this frozen area is a section affording excellent grazing fields on which a cattle industry is destined to thrive. Still further south is the prairie zone more favorable for agriculture, in spite of its extremes of climate. Still further south lie the river valleys of southern British Columbia, extending through southern Manitoba and to the Atlantic Coast. Here is the part of Canada which is best developed agriculturally. Here is the great wheat belt provided with transportation to the markets on the east by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence river and connected by railroad systems to the Pacific seaboard. In this favored belt has been seen a rapid development in the culture of cereals. The chief crop in southern Ontario, Manitoba and Saskatchewan is wheat. Oats arc cultivated in all southeastern Canada, corn and barley in southern Ontario chiefly, vegetables and fruits in the southern districts of Ontario and British Columbia. Forests are another great source of Canada's wealth. Estimates place the total forest area at 930,000 square miles of winch 390,000 square miles is in timber of commercial value. The Ottawa River basin is the seat of the lumber industry. Another important resource of Canada is mining. Fishing and fur farming have also assumed great importance in the industrial resources.

MINERAL RESOURCES of Canada are extensive and varied, including mineral fuels, building material and almost every known metal of economic value. This much is known concerning those portions of the Dominion which have been surveyed, and there are extensive areas yet unexplored, which doubtless contain vast stores of mineral wealth. The Departments of Mines of the Provincial and Dominion Governments are engaged in developing the mineral resources of the country.

COAL is the most valuable product of Canadian mines and occurs in large quantities in Alberta, Nova Scotia and British Columbia. The most extensive deposits are in Alberta, in which province more than 14 per cent of the world's coal resources are located. The mines of Nova Scotia are next in importance, followed by those in British Columbia. The coal of Nova Scotia and British Columbia is of the bituminous variety. The Alberta measures contain all varieties from anthracite to lignite, which is quite generaly found throughout Alberta and Saskatchewan.

PETROLEUM. The oil wells in Lambton and Kent counties, Ontario, have been in operation since 1860. Some oil has been found in Alberta near the United States boundary, and in the northern part of this province along the Athabaska River the presence of tar sands indicates that the region is underlaid with oil hearing rock.

NATURAL GAS. There is a large regior bearing natural gas around Medicine Hat, the southern part of Alberta. Several gas fields have also been exploited in the southern part of Ontario. It is supposed that large areas in Quebec and the northern part of Alberta arc underlaid by gas-bearing rock. These regions are awaiting development.

GOLD has long been mined in moderate quantities in Nova Scotia, where it is found in the Cambrian rocks, but larger quantities were secured from the Placer mines of British Columbia, where work began about 1857, and bv 1863 had an annual value of $3,913,000, but subsequently declined until in 1893 it readied its lowest point, $356,131. The great revival of the gold industry came in 1897, when the Placer Mines of the Klondike and other Yukon regions were opened, the Yukon alone reaching $22,275,000 in 1900. But tin-gold production of the Yukon district fell steadily until 1907 when it was only $3,150,000, the figures for 1904 being $10,500,000. Then production began to rise again and in 1912 amounted to 267.447 ounces valued at $5,549,296. Quartz and hydraulic mining has been undertaken in southern Britisli Columbia (the Koo-tenay region) with a decided increase in the output. Gold exists at other points, notably on the north shore of Lake Superior, but mining operations there are still on a small scale. In 1923 the total value of the gold output was $24,382.000, the total weight being 1,179,-500 ounces. Of this total, Ontario produced $20,668,692, British Columbia $3,629,106 and the Yukon $1.123,927.

SILVER. Most of the silver is obtained from ores in which it is combined with other metals, especially cobalt, lead, copper and arsenic. Ores of this character are widely distributed throughout British Columbia, the deposits in West Kootenay. East Kootenay, Rossland and Boundary districts being the most valuable. There are important silver mines near the west end of Lake Superior in Ontario, and from one mine in the Thunder Bay District over $3,500,000 worth of metal has been taken. In recent years Ontario has been the principal silver producing province, most of the metal being obtained by working the extensive deposits of silver-cobalt ores in the Cobalt District. The vearlv production from all the mines in 1923 was $10,944,000, of which Ontario produced $7,223,749.

COPPER. Most of the copper produced in Canada comes from British Columbia, where it is obtained from ore containing gold and silver. North of Lake Superior in Ontario there are large areas of rock containing free copper, but they have not been worked. Considerable copper is obtained in the reduction of copper-nickel ores near Sudbury, and in the Eastern Townships of Quebec there are deposits of ore containing a mixture of iron and copper pyrites which are worked for their sulphur content. The total yearly production of copper for the Dominion has exceeded 100,000,000 pounds, valued at $30,000,000. In 1923 the output declined to 86,312,000 pounds, valued at $12,515,000.

NICKEL. The largest nickel mines in the world are near Sudbury, Ontario, and they supply more than one-half the world's output, the annual production for 1923 being $18.433,000.

IRON. Iron ore is widely distributed throughout the Dominion, but Nova Scotia. Quebec and Ontario are the only provinces in which there are smelters. On Vancouver Island arc large deposits of high-grade magnetite, an ore from which the most valuable iron is produced. There are extensive deposits of clay-ironstone in Alberta; extensive deposits of hematite occur in Ontario, Quebec and Nova Scotia, all indicating that an inexhaustible supply of iron ore is ready tor the smelter whenever the market demands it.

ASBESTOS. In the Eastern Townships of Quebec are the largest asbestos mines in the world, and from them the greater part of the world's supply is obtained. The annual output in 1923 was valued at $7,308,138.

CLAY AND BUILDING STONE are widely distributed. The clay is extensively used in making brick, and much of the marl is suitable for making cement. There are valuable granite quarries in Quebec, and the limestone quarries near Montreal have furnished the stone of which many of the buildings in that city are constructed. Lead is produced in considerable quantities in British Columbia; salt is found in Ontario; there are valuable deposits of mica in Quebec: and graphite, manganese, corundum and gypsum are also found in various localities and in paying quantities.

FISHERIES of Canada are the most extensive in the world and rank as a chief industry of the Dominion in value and importance. The annual catch amounts to $40,000,000; the industry gives employment to 75,000 persons and has an invested capital of $50,000,000. The fishing fleet comprises 1,300 vessels and 30,000 boats, manned by 60,000 men. The leading fish taken, in order of value, are salmon, cod, halibut, lobsters, whitefish and herring. The leading provinces are British Columbia, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Ontario. Cod, lobsters, herring and haddock are the most important fish taken off the Atlantic Coast; on the Pacific Coast but little attention has been given to other than salmon fisheries; halibut is important in British Columbia. The large inland lakes furnish large quantities of white fish, lake trout and pickerel, while the streams and smaller lakes abound in bass and trout, game fish always attractive to the sportsman. The fisheries are under the direct supervision of the Department of Marine and Fisheries of the Dominion Government, whose executive officer is the Dominion commissioner of fisheries. The government encourages the industry by paying bounties annually to the owners of vessels, vessel fishermen and boat fishermen. Several scientific biological stations and thirty-seven fish hatcheries are maintained. Careful study is also made by the department of the best methods of curing the various kinds of fish. Government fish driers and bait-freezing stations for the preservation of bait have been established. The government has also erected reduction works for the purpose of manufacturing fish waste into guano, fish oil and other products, thus preventing the pollution of the water by the casting of this refuse into the sea. A fisheries protective fleet of about 16 vessels patrols the coasts of the Atlantic and the Pacific and of the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes to see that the laws regarding the preservation and taking of fish are enforced.

FORESTS of Canada cover 930,000 square miles, or one-fourth of the entire area of the country, and constitute the largest forest area of any lumber-producing country in the world. There arc two forest belts, that extending from Nova Scotia westward through New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario and around Hudson Bay to Alaska and westward to the prairie region of the central plain; and the British Columbia belt, extending from the soutliern boundary of that province to the northern limit of forest growth. The first belt varies in width from 200 to 400 miles. The most valuable commercial timber in this belt is white pine, spruce, hemlock, jackpine, fir, cedar, maple, beech, birch, tamarack, hasswood, poplar, elm, ash and hickory. The commercial timber of Britisli Columbia consists chiefly of Douglas fir, spruce and red cedar. British Columbia has the largest forest area, Quebec the second, and Ontario the third, and the combined areas of Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan are about equal to that of British Columbia.

FORESTRY. When first settled, much of the land in the Eastern Provinces now under cultivation was covered with forests. Within recent years the demand for lumber has caused large areas in New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario to be stripped of their forests, and in order to conserve this great source of wealth there was established the Dominion Bureau of Forestry. There is also a provincial bureau maintained by Ontario. The direction of the bureau is in charge of the Dominion superintendent of forestry, who employs a large corps of trained assistants. All forests on government land are under the supervision of this bureau, and those belonging to the provinces are under the supervision of their respective local governments. The Dominion bureau supervises cutting timber on government lands, employs foresters and rangers to enforce the laws and to prevent forest fires, makes surveys of government forests to determine their extent and value, makes provision for reforesting deforested regions and assists settlers in planting trees for windbreaks. Since establishing the bureau, over 16,000,000 trees have been furnished for this purpose, most of them going to the treeless prairies in the Northwest. The Canadian Forestry Association was organized in 1900 and exerts a strong influence in securing judicious treatment of forests and in establishing national forest preserves. The association publishes annual reports and a quarterly periodical, which contains valuable information.

FOREST RESERVES. The Dominion Government has set apart a number of forest reserves. They include the Riding Mountain Reserve, 1,535 square miles; the Pines Forest Reserve, southwest of the North Saskatchewan River in Alberta, 145 square miles; the Cypress Hills Reserve in west Saskatchewan; the reserve about Crowsnest Pass in Alberta; the Spruce Woods and Beaver Hills reserves in Manitoba; the Timagami and Mississasagi reserves in Ontario. Conditions of soil, climate and geographical location make Canada pre-eminently an agricultural country. Latest estimates show one-third of the people engaged in practical agriculture and many others in occupations directly related to agriculture, such as the manufacture of agricultural implements, making butter and cheese and transporting agricultural produce. The cool temperate climate is adapted to the production of cereals and vegetables of excellent quality, and with scarcely an exception the soil is of a high degree of fertility.

WHEAT is the leading cereal in value, and oats lead in quantity. In 1922 there were 400,000,000 bushels of wheat raised, the leading provinces in the order of production being Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec. The development of the wheat-growing regions in the Prairie Provinces is proceeding rapidly, and owing to the long, sunny days wheat matures 800 miles north of Winnipeg, and the conditions of soil and climate produce grain of excellent quality. Canada is now the third largest wheat-producing and the second largest wheat-exporting country in the world.

LUMBERING. The facilities for lumbering are excellent. The numerous streams and lakes throughout the forests o^ the Eastern Provinces afford ready and cheap transportation for the logs. These are usually cut during the winter and piled on the banks of streams or lakes, and in the spring they are floated down the streams to the mills. In British Columbia the larger size of the trees necessitates locating the mills in the forest where the logs are cut. Most of the mills are operated by water power at a great saving of expense over steam power. The annual timber cut is 3,000,000 board feet, valued at $83,000,000. Spruce and white pine each constitute one-fourth of the cut. In the order of output, Ontario is first, British Columbia second and Quebec third. The manufacture of wood pulp lor paper consumes 4,000,000 cords of wood annually. About twenty-five percent of this is shipped manufactured to the United States.

NATIONAL PARKS. In addition to the forest reserves, Canada has a number of national parks. Among them are Rocky Mountains Park, at Banff; Yolio Park, on the slope of the Rockies in Britisli Columbia; Glacier Park at the summit of the Selkirks; Jasper Park, in northern Alberta; Watertown Lakes Park, adjoining the U. S. Glacier National Park. Kik Island Park, near Lamont. and Buffalo Park, near Wainwright, in Alberta, are fenced enclosures, for the preservation of buffalo.

LIVE STOCK. The raising of live stock is one of the great Canadian industries, being carried on not only as a primary industry on the great ranches of Alberta and Saskatchewan, but in the other provinces in connection with mixed farming. Special attention is given to raising draft horses in Ontario and considerable attention is given them in the Prairie Provinces. The Clydesdale, the Shire and the Percheron are the breeds most generally found. Large numbers of coach and saddle horses are also raised. Horse ranching is an important industry in Alberta, especially in those sections where mild winters admit of wintering the stock without shelter. Cattle, sheep, hogs and poultry are found in large numbers in all provinces. For beef cattle, Shorthorns, Herefords and Aberdeen-Angus are the principal breeds, and for dairy purposes Jerseys. Ayrshires, Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians are the most profitable. The prairies of the Northwest formexcellent pasturage and upon them large herds are fattened for beef every year. Hogs are grown chiefly in those localities where special attention is given to dairying. Bacon is the most important hog product for export. Careful attention is given to breeding, especially to maintaining high grades of horses and cattle, and the greatest precautions are taken against importation of diseased animals, seventy inspection stations being maintained by the government for this purpose.

DAIRYING. Canada is an ideal dairy country. The cool climate, rich soil providing excellent pasturage and fodder, and an abundance of pure water all contribute to the production of milk of excellent quality. The entire income from dairy products is over $112,000,000 a year, of which one third is derived from exports. Canada excels in the manufacture of cheese, which is chiefly of the variety known as "Canadian cheddar," one pound of which, experts assert, has as much nourishment as two and one-fourth pounds of beef. Large quantities of butter are also manufactured and exported. The butter and cheese for market are generally made in cheese factories and creameries. Large quantities of condensed milk are prepared. All products for export are subject to strict government inspection, with the result that Canadian dairy products have acquired an excellent reputation. For the fiscal year ending March 31, 1923, the value of exports were: Cheese $20,828,-234, cream $2,793,937, butter $8,243,138, condensed milk $2,861,058.

FRUIT. The leading fruit-growing regions are in Nova Scotia, in the southern and western parts of Ontario and in British Columbia. In all these regions apples of excellent quality are raised, and in the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario and British Columbia peaches and pears are successful. The annual commercial production of apples in Canada is 3,500,000 barrels, valued at $30,000,000. Plums, cherries and small fruits of many varieties are grown successfully in many localities and supply most of the needs for home consumption. Nursery fruit stock is sold in Canada to the value of $600,000 annually.

GOVERNMENT AID. The Dominion Government renders the farmers valuable assistance along practically all lines of agricultural development. This work is in charge of the deduction of iron and steel, which is carried on chiefly in Ontario, Quebec and Nova Scotia is increasing, but is not yet sufficient to supply the demand, and large importations are necessary. Flour mills are being erected throughout the wheat belt and the manufacture of flour is rapidly increasing. The canning of fruit and vegetables is an important industry in the fruit-growing sections, as is the canning of fish and lobsters in the Maritime Provinces

MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE

MANUFACTURING industries are increasing rapidly. The development of agricultural and other interests produces a constantly increasing demand for manufactures, and the unlimited water power distributed throughout the country is favorable to the production of goods at a limited expense. The manufacture of lumber, shingles and wood pulp, is the leading manufacturing industry, and the annual output amounts to about $175,000,000. The production of iron and steel, which is carried on chiefly in Ontario, Quebec and Nova Scotia is increasing, but is not yet sufficient to supply the demand, and large importations are necessary. Flour mills are being erected throughout the wheat belt and the manufacture of flour is rapidly increasing. The canning of fruit and vegetables is an important industry in the fruit-growing sections, as is the canning of fish and lobsters in the Maritime Provinces department of agriculture, the head of which is the Minister of Agriculture, a member of the Dominion Parliament. Under the direction of the department, numerous experimental farms have been established in the various provinces, with a central farm at Ottawa. The central farm gives special attention to problems of national import, and each of the other farms studies the problems of its immediate locality. The farm in southern Alberta, for example, gives special attention to irrigation and dry-farming. These farms experiment to discover the most profitable crops, the best variety of seed for their respective localities and also to determine what new branches of agriculture can be introduced to advantage. The department. through its live stock branch, gives attention to breeding high-grade animals, and prevention of contagious diseases through inspection of domestic herds and by excluding diseased animals from importation. This brand is in charge of skilled veterinary officers, and owing to their care the country is absolutely free from rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia and foot and mouth disease, and hog cholera is nearly exterminated. A biological laboratory is maintained in which all diseases of domestic animals are carefully studied. Another branch of the department gives special attention to the improvement of seed, thus raising the standard and increasing the production of the various crops throughout the Dominion, Attention is also given to extending the market for agricultural and dairy produce and holding annually an exhibition of products from all the provinces. Information is furnished the farmers through the distribution of bulletins and through correspondence. Agricultural colleges arc maintained by the provincial authorities at Gudph, Ontario; Truro, Nova Scotia; and Winnipeg, Manitoba. There are also provincial agricultural associations in the various provinces, each devoted to the interests of its own province.

CROWN-LANDS. There are still large areas of unoccupied lands in all the provinces except Prince Edward Island. In Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta Provinces these lands are owned by the Dominion Government and are known as crown-lands. They are open to settlement on liberal terms.

COMMERCE. The chief foreign commerce of Canada is with Great Britain and the United States. The exports are principally agricultural produce, especially wheat, flour, dairy products and meats: lumber, wood pulp and some other raw materials for manufacture. Some coal is sent from Nova Scotia to the United States. The imports consist almost wholly of manufactured goods, especially textiles, clothing, boots and shoes, farm implements and other machinery. Canada has a preferential tariff with Great Britain and a strong protective tariff with other countries, with all of which she has more or less trade. The foreign trade for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1923, amounted to $1,747,760.880 with imports $802,465,043 and exports $945.295,837. There are no tariff barriers between the provinces, and the domestic trade is much larger than that with foreign countries.

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION Canada is amply provided with inland waterways. The most important of these extends from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, by way of the St. Lawrence River, and connecting canals which have a combined length of 79 miles. The entire distance from tlie Strait of Belle Isle to Port Arthur is 2,233 miles. Ocean-going vessels ascend the St. Lawrence to Montreal, and lake steamers, by use of the Welland Canal, can descend to that city without altering their cargoes. Were the canal locks larger and deeper ocean sliips could readily pass between the Atlantic and ports on the Great Lakes. The new Welland Ship Canal 25 miles long is under construction. The difference of 325 feet between the levels ot Lake Ontario and Lake Erie will be overcome by seven lift locks, 800 feet long, 80 feet wide with 30 feet of water over the metre sells and a lift of 464 feet each. The Canadian and United States Governments have before them now the report of the International Joint Commission advocating the construction of a larger canal on the St. Lawrence River to accommodate vessels drawing 30 feet of water. This will allow ocean-going vessels to proceed to the head of the Great Lakes. The St. Lawrence Canal proposition will also develop about 2,000,000 horse power of electric energy. The yearly traffic passing over this route during the period of navigation is more than twice that passing through the Suez Canal in a year. (See Sault Ste. Marie, Canada; Suez Canal: Welland Canal; St. Lawrence River.) Other canals in operation are the Rideau, extending from Ottawa to Kingston, a distance of 126 miles, and the Trent Canal, extending from Trenton on the mouth of the Trent River in the Bay of Quinte to Lake Couchi-ching. The Georgian Bay ship canal to connect Lake Huron with the St. Lawrence at Montreal is projected, and if constructed will be a stupendous work. Besides the St. Lawrence system there are a number of other navigable rivers for river craft. There are the Ottawa, the Saguenay, the Richelieu and the St. John in the Eastern Provinces, and the Eraser in British Columbia.

OCEAN ROUTES. The indentations of the Atlantic coast provide a number of good harbors in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and the St. Lawrence provides a deep-sea waterway to Montreal. On the Pacific coast therc are commodious harbors at Vancouver and Prince Rupert, the termini respectively of the Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific railways. Because of their high latitudes the Canadian ocean routes are much shorter than those farther south. Already the Canadian Pacific has its lines of steamers on the Atlantic connecting with European ports and on the Pacific connecting Vancouver with China, Japan and Australia. The Canadian Government has a fleet of 64 steamships on the Great Lakes and on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and has established trade routes with all important countries. The most important seaports on the Atlantic routes are Halifax, St. John, Sydney, Quebec and Montreal; and on the Pacific Coast, Vancouver, Victoria, and Prince Rupert. Hudson Bay is free from ice four months in the year. A railway is being constructed to its western coast. This will furnish a short and practical route for shipping to Europe most of the wheat of the Northwest.

RAILROADS. Canada has about 40,000 miles of single track steam railway mileage. This is about a mile for every 200 inhabitants—a greater per capita mileage than in any other country in the world except Australia. Of the total mileage about 22,700 are operated under government ownership by the Canadian National Railways, which include the Intercolonial, the National Transcontinental, the Canadian Northern, the Grand Trunk Pacific, the Grand Trunk, and the Hudson Bay railways. This system, which is the largest publicly or privately owned railway system in the world, extends in the east to Halifax, N.S., Portland, and Boston, Mass.; and in the west to Vancouver, B.C., Prince Rupert, B.C, and Chicago, ILL.

ELECTRIC LINES. Besides the steam railways there are elaborate systems of electric lines in all large cities, and in the smaller cities and larger towns of the more densely populated portions of all provinces. Many of these lines are interurban. There are now 65 electric railways with a mileage of about 2500.

COMMUNICATION. The Canadian postal system is similar to that of Great Britain and is of the highest order. There are 4000 rural routes, and mails regularly reach all parts of the Dominion. There are 60,000 miles of telegraph lines, with 260,000 miles of wire, of which 14,001 miles is under government ownership. The telephone is in common use, with 2,200.000 miles of telephone wires.

THE GOVERNMENT OF CANADA The present constitution under which the Federation was formed was framed by delegates of the provinces, and enacted by the British Parliament in 1867. The constitution reserves to the Dominion all powers not specifically delegated to the provinces.

THE HIGH COMMISSIONER. As the Crown is represented by the Governor-general, residing in Ottawa, so is the Dominion represented by the High Commissioner for Canada residing in London. The statute which provided for the appointment of a high commissioner for Canada became effective in 1880. It provided that he should take charge of the immigration officers and agencies of the United Kingdom, carry out instructions from the governor-ill-council relating to the commercial, financial and general interests of Canada in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, and perform such other duties as are from time to time conferred upon him by the governor-in-council. He is appointed from the King's Privy Council for Canada.

PARLIAMENT. The legislative powers of the Dominion Government are vested in a Parliament of two Houses, the Senate and House of Commons. The members of the Senate are nominated for life by summons of the governor-general under the Great Seal of Canada. A senator must be at least 30 years of age, must be a born or naturalized British subject, must reside in the province for which he is chosen and must possess above all liabilities. There are 96 senators appointed as follows: Ontario 24; Quebec 24; Nova Scotia 10: New Brunswick, 10; Manitoba 6; Prince Edward Island. 4; Alberta, Saskatchewan and British Columbia, six each. The House of Commons consists of 235 members elected by popular vote, for five years and apportioned among the various provinces as follows: Ontario, 82: Quebec, 65; Nova Scotia, 16; New Brunswick, 11; Manitoba, 15, British Columbia, 13; Prince Edward Island, four; Sastachewan. 16; Alberta, 12 and Yukon Territory one. The basis of representation, determined after each census, was fixed in 1914 at one representative for every 30,858 people. The British sovereign is represented by a governor-general, appointed by the Crown on recommendation of the Canadian Government. He is assisted by a council of 19 members, known as the King's Privy Council. The members are heads of the various departments of government and constitute the Ministry. They are appointed as follows by the governor-general on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, whose ministry holds office while it commands support of a majority in the House of Commons: (1) premier, or prime minister, who is usually president of the council: (2) secretary of state; (3) minister of trade and commerce; (4) minister of justice and attorney-general; (5) minister of marine, fisheries and naval service; (6) minister of railways and canals; (7) minister of national defence: (8) minister of finance; (9) postmaster general; (10) minister of agriculture; (11) minister of public works; (12) minister of interior;(13) minister of customs; (14) minister of inland revenue and mines; (15) minister of labor, and ministers without portfolio. A department of external affairs has been formed which has charge of all imperial and intercolonial correspondence. Each minister has a salary of $10,000 and the prime minister has a salary of $15,000. All ministers are members of the Dominion Parliament. As the representative of the Crown, the governor-general's powers are largely advisory. The governor-general has the power of veto, but in practice he cannot exercise it except on the advice of his ministers who would themselves be driven from office if they opposed the will of the House of Commons. With the advice of the Council he appoints the lieutenant-governors of the provinces and certain other officials. "He reigns, But does not rule." His salary is $50,000. Politically, Canada was divided into two parties, the Conservative and the Liberal, until the recent birth of the Progressive party. As in England, the party in power forms the government and the members of the ministry are drawn from that party. In case of an adverse vote, the ministry resigns, and when the party in power is unable to retain the support of the majority of the people, the govern-or-in-council may dissolve Parliament and order a new election, regardless of the period of five years for which each member of the House of Commons is elected.

COURTS. The judges of the Dominion courts are appointed by the Dominion Government and hold office for life, or during good behavior. They can be removed only by the governor-general for cause. This plan assures a permanency and independence of the judiciary which entirely removes the judicial department of the government from political influence.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The government of each province is on the same general plan as that of the Dominion. The executive branch consists of a lieutenant-governor, appointed by the governor-in-council, and an advisory, or executive, council, each member of which holds some provincial office, as the head of a department. The number of members of the executive council varies in the different provinces from five in British Columbia to eight in Ontario. The lieutenant-governor is appointed by the governor-general for five years and cannot be removed except for specific cause, and the reason must be communicated to Parliament. He appoints the advisory council and has power to summon, prorogue or dissolve the Legislature, and with the advice of his council he may perform any executive acts necessary for governing his province. In short, within the limits of his jurisdiction he possesses the authority of a governor-general. In Quebec and Nova Scotia the legislative assembly consists of two bodies, a Legislative Council, appointed by the lieutenant-governor-in-council, and an Assembly elected by popular vote. In all the other provinces the Legislature consists of only one body. In all cases the members are elected by popular vote, the qualifications for electors being determined by each province. The Legislatures have authority to deal with matters pertaining to their respective provinces, but inter-provincial matters are in the hands of the Dominion Government. Each province has a system of courts presided over by judges, who are appointed and paid by the Dominion Government. Each province also has its own system of civil service, and the system of removing civil servants on a change in the government is unknown in Canada except for cause. Every civil servant holds office during good behavior. For a more detailed description see the subhead Government in the articles on the respective provinces.

EDUCATION. The duties of legislating on educational matters are imposed upon each province by the British North America Act. There is, therefore, no national system of education. The public school systems of the various provinces, however, are much the same, except in Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan and Alberta where sectarian schools are allowed. The public schools throughout the Dominion have a wide reputation for their high standard and excellent work. There are over 2,000,000 pupils in the schools and over 60,000 teachers are employed.

FINANCE The money system of Canada is on the decimal scale. The dollar of 100 cents is the standard unit. Fractional currency consists of fifty-cent pieces, twenty-five-cent pieces, ten-cent pieces, five-cent pieces and one-cent pieces. Gold coins of the values of $5, $10 and $20 respectively are authorized, and banks are allowed to issue notes in denominations of $5 and multiples thereof to the amount of their paid up capital. The large banks are chartered by the government and are authorized to establish brandies. By this plan a few banks with large capital can serve many communities. The Dominion Government issues some notes, and there is a branch of the Royal Mint at Ottawa, where the coin for the Dominion is struck.

SAVINGS BANKS. Canada has four kinds of savings banks, the postal savings banks, the government savings banks of Manitoba and Ontario, two special savings banks in Montreal and Quebec and savings-bank departments of the chartered banks. The total deposits in the savings banks of the Dominion averaged $139.97 per capita in 1922.

GOVERNMENT REVENUE is derived from customs, excise duties, mining licenses, timber dues, and the sale of public lands. For the last fiscal year, the total revenue was half a billion dollars. The net national debt is $2,422.135.801, and the per capita indebtedness, $270.

DEFENSE ARMY. The military forces of Canada are under the Defense Council, with the minister of National Defense as president. The land forces are divided into active militia and reserve militia. The active militia is subdivided into permanent and non-permanent forces. The strength of the permanent force is 416 officers and 3102 other ranks. The non-permanent force includes 34 regiments of cavalry and mounted rifles, 61 batteries of field artillery, 43 companies of tlie Canadian Officers Training Corps, and 123 battalions of infantry, with the services in proportion. The peace time establishment of the Canadian militia is about 10,000 officers and 112,000 other ranks. For each unit of cavalry, artillery and infantry of the active militia, there is provision for a unit of reserve, but these units are unorganized beyond the posting of officers.

MILITIA. The active militia is raised by voluntary enlistment for a term of three years, but it can be increased by compulsion if necessary. The reserve militia is unorganized and includes all male citizens who are British subjects between the ages of 18 and 60 years, unless exempt or disqualified by law.

NAVY. The Royal Canadian Navy, established in 1910, consists of about 500 officers and men; the Canadian naval reserve, of the same number. There is also a volunteer reserve of 1000 officers and men organized as a division and distributed by detachments about the country. Close relations are maintained between the British and the Canadian navies, selected officers and men of the latter being sent to England to attend special courses in the naval training schools there and some being lent to His Majesty's ships for training at sea.

MOVEMENT FOR SELF GOVERNMENT An official definition of the new political status of Canada by Prime Minister King as follows: "Canada's position is that of a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire, and while there has been no organic change in her constitutional status within recent times, as the years go by, bringing with them increasing growth and development, her relation, while continuing to own allegiance to the Sovereign of Great Britain, naturally becomes one less of dependence and more of alliance." And the former Premier, Sir Robert L. Borden in 1923 elaborated this situation thus: "The British North America Act of 1867, which united the present provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into one confederation, did not define future constitutional relations but wisely left them to develop according to the need rising from the growing influence and importance of the new Dominion. It was recited in the preamble that the four provinces had expressed their desire to be united federally into one Dominion under the Crown 'with a constitution similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom.' In the division of executive and legislative power between the federal and provincial governments, the framers of the constitution undoubtedly received direct inspiration from the Constitution of the United States. "At the time of confederation the British Government controlled and directed foreign relations without formal or effective consultation with the self-governing colonies. Apparently it determined those relations under a theory of trusteeship; the external interests of the colonies were held in trust tor their due protection in the direction of foreign relations." Mr. Borden then calls attention to the influence of usage in political affairs in the United States despite the definite written constitution, citing particularly the method of electing the President. Great Britain, he reminds us, is governed by a system of understandings or informal conventions as illustrated by the development of cabinet government, the transfer of power from the Crown to the Cabinet, the authority and pre-eminence of the Prime Minister, ministerial responsibility, the relation of the Cabinet to the Crown and to Parliament, the exercise of the Crown's prerogatives by the Ministry although in the name of the Crown, so that these prerogatives, through control by the Commons, have in fact become the liberties of the people. Mr. Borden proceeds to show an analogy in the development of political relations of the self-governing nations of the British Commonwealth of Nations— "if such a designation can properly be applied to its system of governance." These new relations are not yet fully developed, and although not set forth in any written document, they effectually control the exercise of legal power, and are not dependent "upon concession by paramount authority, but are to be regarded as having grown out of inherent right." The distinguished Canadian jurist then reviews the steps taken during the 50 years preceding the great war in the progress of Dominion political status, enumerating seven important changes thus : (1) The Governor-General lost the quality of imperial officer and became in effect a nominated President "whose duties and powers in relation to Canada were practically the same as those appertaining to the Crown in the British Islands;" (2) the consulting of the Dominion by Great Britain in regard to matters affecting the entire Commonwealth; (3) The Dominions ceased to be bound by or included in commercial treaties by Great Britain; (4) Canada negotiated commercial treaties with foreign countries; (5) Canada's right to negotiate political treaties began to be recognized; the Dominion negotiated a far- reaching convention with the United States on boundary differences; Canadians were appointed upon international delegations and tribunals dealing with their particular rights or obligations; (6) The exercise of "legal power to withhold assent to Dominion statutes fell into practical desuetude;" (7) Canada's complete control of her fiscal system, immigration, defense was recognized; "her voice and influence in external relations began to make itself felt in the Imperial Conferences." Proceeding Mr. Borden sums up: "Thus complete autonomy and full control in domestic affairs were established; the principle of consultation and cooperation in external affairs had made distinct progress; the original theory of central control and colonial subordination in the fifty years before the great war was giving way to the new conception of Dominion nationhood.

WORLD WAR CHANGES "In 1912, for the first time, a Dominion Prime Minister as a member of the Privy Council was invited to sit in the British Cabinet. The event was regarded as noteworthy, but war brought about further developments with unexpected rapidity. In the ordinary course the Imperial Conference should have been summoned in 1915, but owing to the anxieties and labors incident to the war it was postponed. It met, however, in 1917 when a notable departure took place. In the autumn of 1916 a new Government had been formed in Great Britain; it was composed of but five members, and it was known as the War Cabinet. Mr. Lloyd George, the new Prime Minister, summoned the Prime Ministers of the Dominions as members of this Cabinet, and, thus constituted, it was termed the Imperial War Cabinets While the designation did not strictly conform to constitutional analogy, it was found convenient and useful. In reality it was the Imperial Conference differently constituted and with distinctive functions to meet the needs of a new and greater occasion. The meetings of the British War Cabinet and of the Imperial War Cabinet were quite distinct, as the Dominion Prime Ministers did not attend the former. In addition there was the Imperial War Conference which consisted of the Dominion Prime Ministers and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, who was elected Chairman. The Imperial War Cabinet devoted itself exclusively to matters relating to the war, and especially to effective co-operation in war effort and policy. British Ministers who were not of the Cabinet attended from time to time upon summons as their presence was required; in like manner they attended meetings of the Imperial War Conference when matters affecting their departments were under consideration. "Little more than half a century had passed ",once the assumption of self-government by Canadian provinces was believed to herald the early disruption of the Empire. Now the self-governing nations with powerful armies faced the Empire's foes on the battlefields of Europe and Asia, and their statesmen sat at the Commonwealth's council board on equal terms with their colleagues of Great Britain. "As the war swept towards its end in the autumn of 1918, public opinion in the Dominions became more and more insistent that their Governments should have a recognized voice and influence in determining the conditions of peace. They had made enormous sacrifices; they had raised powerful armies; they numbered their dead and wounded by the ten thousand. The Imperial War Cabinet discussed the subject with great thoroughness, and conferences took place in London with representatives of the Allied and Associated powers. These discussions were resumed at Paris where the Imperial War Cabinet continued its deliberations as tlie 'British Empire Delegation.' Eventually, a formula was devised by which each Dominion became entitled to the representation accorded to the smaller Allied powers, whose war effort in many instances had been inconsiderable. It was not without much discussion and strong insistence that this result was attained. As a natural sequence it was determined upon the initiative of the Dominions that the consent of the Crown to the various treaties should in respect of the Dominions be expressed by the signature of their plenipotentiaries, and that the preamble and other formal parts of tlie treaties should be prepared accordingly. Thus the Dominions as signatories of the Peace Treaty became members of the League of Nations and acquired a distinctive international status."

A MINISTER AT WASHINGTON In May, 1920, the following announcement was made by the Dominion Government to the Canadian Parliament: "As a result of recent discussions an arrangement has been concluded between the British and Canadian Governments to provide more complete representation at Washington of Canadian interests than hitherto existed. Accordingly, it has been agreed that His Majesty, on advice of his Canadian Ministers, shall appoint a Minister Plenipotentiary who will have charge of Canadian affairs and will at all times be the ordinary channel of communication with tlie United States Government in matters of purely Canadian concern, acting upon instructions from, and reporting direct to, the Canadian Government. In the absence of the Ambassador, the Canadian Minister will take charge of the whole embassy and of the representation of Imperial as well as Canadian interests. He will be accredited by His Majesty to the President with necessary powers for the purpose."

"When the President of the United States in the autumn of 1921 issued the invitations to the Disarmament Conference at Washington, regret was expressed in one Dominion, at least, that an invitation had been extended to the Government of the United Kingdom alone, and that the status of the self-governing Dominions had not received due consideration. There were precedents for extending separate invitations to the Dominions.

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"Having regard to the importance and significance of the Conference, it was wisely decided that the absence of a special invitation should be overlooked and that the Dominions should be represented at Washington by plenipotentiaries nominated on their behalf, to whom full powers should be issued under the same practice that had prevailed at Paris in 1919. In the result the wisdom of this course was entirely apparent. The status and distinctive consideration that the Dominions had received at Paris were accorded to them at Washington. There were regular meetings of the Commonwealth's delegates at which all important questions were discussed and determined in advance. In the formal parts of the treaties special representation of each Dominion was recognized, and each plenipotentiary of the Commonwealth signed on behalf of the Government that he represented." "When the President of the United States in the autumn of 1921 issued the invitations to the Disarmament Conference at Washington, regret was expressed in one Dominion, at least, that an invitation had been extended to the Government of the United Kingdom alone, and that the status of the self-governing Dominions had not received due consideration. There were precedents for extending separate invitations to the Dominions.

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"Having regard to the importance and significance of the Conference, it was wisely decided that the absence of a special invitation should be overlooked and that the Dominions should be represented at Washington by

plenipotentiaries nominated on their behalf, to whom full powers should be issued under the same practice that had prevailed at Paris in 1919. In the result the wisdom of this course was entirely apparent. The status and distinctive consideration that the Dominions had received at Paris were accorded to them at Washington. There were regular meetings of the Commonwealth's delegates at which all important questions were discussed and determined in advance. In the formal parts of the treaties special representation of each Dominion was recognized, and each plenipotentiary of the Commonwealth signed on behalf of the Government that he represented." "When the President of the United States in the autumn of 1921 issued the invitations to the Disarmament Conference at Washington, regret was expressed in one Dominion, at least, that an invitation had been extended to the Government of the United Kingdom alone, and that the status of the self-governing Dominions had not received due consideration. There were precedents for extending separate invitations to the Dominions.

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CANADA'S GLORIOUS PAST AND PRESENT

The first white man to sight the coast of Canada is thought to have been a Norseman, Bjarni Herjulfson, who is known to have reached Greenland in 930. It is also believed that Leif Ericson sailed along a considerable part of the cast coast in 1000. The exploits of Leif are recited in the sagas of the Northmen, telling how he and his "large and strong men" sailed along the strange coast southward to a land of many trees, which probably was Nova Scotia. It is considered certain that these intrepid vikings reached the coast of Greenland, but of their supposed visit to Canada they left no definite evidence. It is established beyond doubt, however, that John Cabot discovered the bleak coast of Labrador in 1497. Like other explorers of his time, Cabot was seeking a northwest passage to India. He reached the shores of the New World in the neighborhood of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is upon this voyage in part, that England subsequently based her claim, to the whole of North America. For the most part, however, the territory included in the present Dominion, excluding the former Northwest Territories and the Hudson Bay country, was explored and first settled by the French. Basque and Breton fishermen began to visit the cod banks of Newfoundland as early as 1504. Denys of Honfleur and Aubcrt of Dieppe explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1506 and 1508, respectively: in 1518 the Baron de Lery attempted to found a colony in America and left some cattle on Sable Island; and in 1524 Verazzano sailed along the coast of North America from the thirty-fourth to the fiftieth parallel of north latitude.

ST. LAWRENCE EXPLORED. In 1534 Jacques Cartier entered and named the Bay of Chaleurs and the following year sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as the present city of Montreal (See Cartier, Jacques). However, no attempts at settlement were made until the beginning of the 17th century. The leading spirit in settlement enterprises was Samuel Champlain, who sailed up the St. Lawrence in 1603, assisted the following year in founding Port Royal, the first permanent French settlement in North America, and in 1608 founded Quebec. From 1608 to his death in 1635 Champlain devoted his life to exploring the interior, establishing settlements and extending the fur trade. He extended his travels westward as far as Lake Huron, visited Lake Ontario and discovered the beautiful lake that bears his name. The greatest of French explorers, he justly acquired the title "Father of New France." (See Champlain, Samuel De.) During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) Port Royal and other French settlements were captured by the British, but Canada was restored to the French by the Treaty of St. Ger-main-en-Laye in 1632. Following this, the Company of New France, also known as "The Company of One Hundred Associates," was formed for the purpose of exploiting the fur trade and founding settlements in Canada. The Company was granted the entire St. Lawrence Valley for 15 years and in return was required to take to New France 300 settlers a year. This company controlled affairs in Canada until 1663, when it was disbanded and the Company of the West Indies was organized. The first company did not succeed in bringing settlers to New France, but the second company began with better prospects. In 1665 it sent about 2000 settlers and within a short time the French population was doubled. It soon proved a failure as a colonizing agency, however, and 3n 1674 its charter was revoked, and thereafter Canada was governed as a royal colony.

FRENCH CONTROL. Meantime explorers, traders and missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church were penetrating the interior. Missions were founded among the Indians around the Great Lakes, extending as far west as the western part of Lake Superior. Those in Sault St. Marie, Michilimackinac and Green Bay occupied strategic points. In 1672 Joliet and Marquette discovered the Mississippi and descended it to the mouth of the Arkansas. The first rejected the Union as outlined in the Quebec resolutions, was compelled later by financial stringency to reconsider, and in 1873 joined its fortunes with those of the larger provinces. One of the important early acquisitions was the vast region known as Rupert's Land and the Northwest territory, the great lone land famed in exploration and discovery, over which one of the greatest of historic monopolies, the Hudson Bay Company had held government and proprietary rights since 1670. This was one of the first problems confronting the new government, and in 1868 a deputation was sent to England to purchase the Company's rights and effect the transfer of territory. Difficult negotiations followed. By British and Canadian statutes, the Company in November, 1869, surrendered its chartered rights and interests in consideration of 300,000 pounds, reserving one-twentieth of a fertile belt whose boundaries were defined and, also, blocks of land at the various trading posts. This territorial acquisition was not accomplished, however, witliout trouble. In the Red River settlements, a district now included in Manitoba, French and Indian half-breeds regarded the Canadian officials, surveyors and bridge builders as intruders upon their property, and prepared resistance. A so-called provisional government was organized under the leadership of a half-breed, Louis Riel, a man of considerable gifts but a fanatic, troubled with religious delusions. Riel had his seat of government at Fort Carry. Fort Garry has grown into the city of Winnipeg. Tlie rebellion was suppressed in 1870 and the Province of Manitoba was created.

SETTLEMENTS WITH U. S. Among the early important events of the first administration of Sir John McDonald was the procuring of a settlement with the United States of several outstanding disputes between Great Britain, the United States and Canada concerning fishing rights, the Oregon boundary, the Alabama claims and losses due to the Fenian riots of 1866 and 1871. At the solicitations of the Dominion cabinet, overtures were made by the British government to the Washington government and were received in a friendly spirit. The work of Canadian railway building in fulfillment of the Dominion's agreement with British Columbia began the epic of Canadian railway construction. Unfortunately, however. Sir John McDonald in his anxiety to fulfill the contract, made the mistake of receiving large sums of money for election purposes from Sir Hugh Allan in return for the contract with the latter to construct the projected Canadian Pacific line. McDonald resigned before a Parlimentary vote on the charges against him could be given, and the governor-general, the Earl of Dufferin, intrusted Alexander MacKenzie, leader of the Liberal opposition, with the task of forming a new administration. This new government was sustained by a very large majority in the general election. MacKenzie found himself in a period of deep business distress which was accentuated by a tariff permitting the easy entrance of manufactured goods from America into a market already almost paralyzed. His policy of piece-meal construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, angered British Columbia to the point of threatened secession. Sir John McDonald, in the meantime, seized an opportune moment to offer the national policy of protection to Canadian industry and in 1878 regained power. He held the Premiership from that time until his death in 1891. Under his regime a protective tariff was established, the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed in 1885 and in the same year a rebellion of half-breed settlers in the Saskatchewan valley under the leadership once more of Louis Riel was put down by force. The Liberals tried to regain power by urging a policy of closer trade relations with the United States, but were unsuccessful at two general elections. However, after McDonald died, the Conservative party lost prestige and none of his successors in the Premiership, Sir. J. J. C. Abbott, Sir John Thompson, Sir Mackenzie Bowell and Sir Charles Tupper were able to stop the party's gradual disintegration. This process of decline was hastened by quarrels in the Cabinet and charges of corrupt practices in the administration of the Department of Public Works, and in the general election of 1896 the Liberals returned to power under the Leadership of Wilfrid (afterwards Sir Wilfrid) Laurier.

ECONOMIC GROWTH. Liberals retained power for fifteen years, a period marked by extraordinary economic and political advancement. Trade relations with Britain and tlie United States especially grew and flourished. On the political side was noted a strengthening of the position of Canada among the nations of Europe and even in more distant continents. Laurier pursued a policy of Liberal loyalty to Britain, but one that was consistent with Canadian supremacy in domestic affairs. In the South African War, Canada was prompt to dispatcli troops to the aid of tlie Mother country, followed by a regiment of horse equipped by Lord Strathcona, high commissioner of the Dominion in London. The tariff policy of the Liberal regime has been credited with much of the economic development of that period. Duties were lower on some manufactured articles and on the necessaries of life, but the tariff afforded moderate protection to Canadian industry, and the vigorous reaching out for trade with different countries. This policy included the development of new lines of telegraphic and steamship communications. Notable was the favor shown to British interests. The famous British Preference of 1897 granted a reduction which in three years became 33 per cent on important classes articles to be admitted on low and identical duties, while other articles were to come in under special rates. The Liberal program in spite of the friendly feeling between the two countries, encountered prejudices prompted doubtless by the fear that reciprocity would result in Canada becoming first a commercial, and finally a political, dependency of the United States. The Liberals went down to defeat and Robert Laird Borden, leader of the Conservative opposition, became Premier. Soon after Mr. Borden came into office, the naval question became acute. The Borden administration seeking to help Britain, brought forward in 1912 a bill to appropriate $35.000,000 to build three battleships to place at the disposal of the British Admiralty. Prolonged debate followed before the measure passed the House of Commons, but it was defeated in 1913 in the Senate. The question, of reciprocity between Canada and the United States was the outstanding economic problem between the two countries. In 1914 when the World War broke out in Europe, Canada voluntarily and without a day's hesitation, accepted her responsibility as a member of the British Empire and immediately raised a large expeditionary force for service in Europe. Subsequently a National Service Act was enacted and a draft resorted to. Almost half a million men were sent to Europe where they rendered notable service. Canadian and United States troops fought side by side in Flanders.

CANADA TODAY.(1920's). Sir Robert Borden resigned in 1920 and was succeded by Mr. Arthur Meighen. The Liberals of late years had been weakened by their defeat of 1911, by the split in the party in 1917 when they were divided on war issues, and by the death of Sir Wilfrid Laurier. Their strength also was decreased by the withdrawal of the farmers. In the Parliament of 1917-21 they held sixty-two of the sixty-five seats from Quebec and nearly half of the seats from the three Atlantic provinces, but only a few from Ontario and only two from the western provinces. They sliowed increased vigor after the drawing up of their new platform at the National Convention of 1919 and their election of William Lyon Mackenzie King as leader. Recent years have seen the growth of the National Progressives or Farmers party composed largely of residents of the western or prairie provinces who had developed strong economic organizations and a spirit of solidarity. The Cooperative Farmer's movement was organized on a provincial scale throughout the West and spread also in the East. In general the aim of the Progressives or Farmers, was to hold in check the power of the manufacturers, railroads and banks, but specifically there was opposition to a protective tariff, and resentment of the rejection of reciprocity. They had in recent years acquired control of the governments of Alberta and Ontario and had become the chief political power in Saskatchewan and had made rapid progress in Manitoba. The farmers demanded a thorough cutting down of duties on the necessities of life, including food stuffs and on instruments of production, and into their platform they inserted a plank demanding free trade with England in five years, although this afterwards seemed to the main body of them too radical a measure. They contended that the high tariff tended to depopulate the country districts and to lead to combinations and monopolies. On the other hand the Conservatives argued that free trade endangered the unity and even the independence of the country and they pointed to the Fordney Emergency tariff in the United States as an indication of the impossibility of friendly tariff relations with that country. The Liberals in respect to the tariff were on practically the same ground as the Farmers, except for the free trade with England and France. The Liberals in general desired a tariff for revenue with protection as merely incidental.

TARIFFF Is BIG ISSUE. After the arrival of the new governor-general Lord Byng of Vimy, Prime Minister Meighen, reorganized the Unionist ministry with a view to strengthening it on the eve of the general election. Parliament was officially dissolved by the governor-general, Lord Byng, on October 4, 1921. The Prime Minister, Mr. Meighen, thereupon, issued the party declaration, declaring that the tariff question was the chief consideration before the people. He contended that the protective tariff was vital to the industrial welfare of Canada and that any downward revision would tear down the constructive work that had been accomplished in an industrial way. The Liberal and Progressive parties on the other hand, declared for a tariff for revenue only, the Progressives favoring ultimate free trade. In the election of 1921 the Prime Minister was defeated even in his own constituency and ten members of the Cabinet lost their seats. The result of the election, 117 Liberals, 65 Progressives, 51 Conservatives and two members of the Labor Party, gave a strong Liberal majority. The Liberal leader Mr. William Lyon Mackenzie King was chosen Prime Minister. Liberals and Progressives were united in their desire for a low tariff with reciprocity between Canada and the United States, and the result was the slashing of duties by a big parliamentary vote in May, 1924. Among other matters receiving much attention in recent years has been the question of immigration. Canada has taken measures to obtain desirable immigrants in greater numbers. At the same time it has been found advisable to limit the immigration of certain nationalities. The Chinese Exclusion Act, passed in 1923, confined immigration to a few classes.

RELATIONS WITH U. S. The boundary line between Canada and the United States which was determined rather vaguely by the Treaty of 1783 has formed the subject of much controversy between the United States and Great Britain and was not finally settled for the northeast until 1842 (See Webster-Ashburton Treaty) and for the northwest until 1846. The question of the Alaskan boundary was rendered acute by the discovery of gold in the Yukon region. It was settled by an international commission in 1903 on terms that left dissatisfaction in Canada. The question of the right of the Americans to fish in Canadian waters has also been a subject of considerable controversy between the two governments, as has also the right of the Canadians to participate in the fisheries in Bering Sea. (See Bering Sea Controversy.) But in general the two countries have lived on terms of mutual respect and confidence. In 1923 a treaty was signed with the United States in regard to fisheries in the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific. This was the first time in her history that Canada had completed a treaty with a foreign nation without the signature of a representative of the London foreign office. The reduction of the tariff cleared the way for open trade with the United States and led to closer relations than ever between the two countries.