England
From Encyclopediak
England, Ingland, the name applied to the southern portion of the Island of Great Britain, exclusive of Wales, the ancient historical division of the western coast. It lies between 50 and 55 46' north latitude and 1 46' east and 5 42' west longitude, and is bounded on the n. by Scotland, on the e. by the North Sea, on the s. by the English Channel and on the w. by St. George's Channel and the Irish Sea. Its shape is triangular and it has a total area of 50,680 sq. m. The coast line is greatly indented and is nearly 2000 m. long no point of the mainland is more than 75 m. from the sea.
SURFACE. The part of England lying northwest of the line from Exeter to Berwick is hilly and mountainous, but the mountains are, on the whole, lower than are those of Scotland. The ranges extend generally from northeast to southwest, and the southern part of the island becomes gradually wider, lower and flatter. The Cheviot Hills belong rather to Scotland than to England and formed the natural line of division which established the separate political existence of the two countries. The Pennine Chain, a continuation of the Cheviot Hills, stretches southward for 270 m., until in Derby and Stafford it becomes an elevated moorland plateau. Other connecting ranges of the country are the Cumbrian Range, the Cambrian Range, the Devonian Range, the Mendip, Cotswold and Chiltern hills. The most extensive plains are the Coquet, Tyne and Tees valleys in the northeast the Valley of Eden, between the Pennine Chain and the Cumbrian Range the Vale of York in the north, with an area of almost 1000 sq. m. and tile Cheshire Plain, in south Lancashire and Cheshire. The Salisbury Plain lies southeast of the Cotswold Hills the Vale of Taunton is in Somerset and that of Exeter in Devon the continuous plains of Sussex, Kent and Surrey end to the southeast in the Romney Marsh, The whole southeastern portion of the country is more or less lowland.
RIVERS AND LAKES. There are numerous large and important rivers, and the four great river basins are those of the Thames, Severn. Humber and Wash, The basin of the Thames has an area of 6160 sq. m. and extends east and west for 130 m. The Severn has as important tributaries the Upper Avon, the Teme and the Wye, and the area of its basin is 8580 sq. m. The tributaries of the Wash are the Great Ouse, Witham, Nen and Welland. The Humber receives the waters of the Ouse and the Trent and drains 9550 sq. m. of English and Welsh territory. Smaller streams are the Tyne, Wear, Tees, Eden, Mersey, Ribble and Dee. The lakes which lie between the mountain ranges of the north and form the celebrated "Lake District" are principally Windermere, Coniston Lake, Derwent Water and Ullswater. For beauty and picturesqueness they are scarcely surpassed by the famous lochs that curve along the hillsides and highlands f Scotland.
CLIMATE. The British climate as a whole is characterized by cool summers, warm winters and an abundant supply of rainfall. The surrounding seas are warm and temper the climate of the islands, preventing marked extremes or temperature. Clouds and heavy fog hang over lie country when the wind sweeps in from the Atlantic it brings heavy rainfall to the western coasts, which lessens materially inland, but not sufficient to bring about an inadequate supply at any time of the year. There is abundant snowfall in the winter, and during the summer months the islands are exposed to severe cyclonic storms from the Atlantic.
MINERALS AND MINING. Coal and iron have been found in such abundant quantities in England as to make it the foremost among European countries in industrial development. The large coal fields, especially, have determined the distribution of population and have long been the source of the great wealth of the country. The mines were exploited to a large extent even in the 13th century, and the recent change in the relative importance of the mines of Great Britain is due only to the fact that the United States and Germany have exploited wider fields that are constantly yielding richer returns. Today the output of the British iron mines is insufficient for local needs and the manufacturing interests depend largely on imports from Spain. During the Middle Ages and before, other minerals were considered of far greater importance, and a heavy trade was carried on in tin, lead, copper and silver, despite the fact that the mining was carried on with great difficulty. Minor products which are now obtained are English clays, copper, tin, salt, limestone, slate, slab and sandstone.
AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. The natural facilities for agriculture are inferior to those of the large countries on the Continent, and England far from supplies a sufficient amount to meet its own needs. The relatively small part of the country that is suitable for cultivation lacks any high degree of fertility, and, while the summers are generally temperate, they are on the whole too cool for a successful growing of corn. There has of late been an increased productivity of wheat, and the large population makes heavy demands on the fruit and truck farms which exist in large numbers near the large cities. Grazing is of great consequence and dairying is constantly coming to the front among the industries. The principal cereals are wheat, barley, oats, rye, beans and peas the vegetables include potatoes, turnips and cabbage. Clover, hops, flax and small fruit are also raised. The size of the English farms is comparatively small, but a large outlay of labor and capital is necessary for the successful methods of intensive farming that are widely resorted to. The fisheries, particularly off the Norfolk coast, are very profitable. The most important catch is the haddock, while the North Sea yields rich returns of codfish, shellfish and mackerel. Other fish are the oyster, sardine and salmon. Yarmouth, Hull, Peterhead and Grimsby have within recent years developed into large fishing centers, and the catch is mainly sent to the London market. the largest fish market in the world.
MANUFACTURES. For a long time England has enjoyed the reputation of being the foremost manufacturing country in the world, and it is only within the last 100 years that the United States equaled and surpassed Great Britain in industrial development. Its early chief daiti to preeminence was in its unexcelled production of wool, and the establishment of a home woolen industry is attributed to Edward III, who imported numerous Flemish artisans to England and with this migration established the nucleus to the production. During the Elizabethan reign it was still further developed, due to the additional migration of Flemings, persecuted in their Mother Country. With the arrival of the French Huguenots after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a new impetus was given to the manufacture of paper, silk and glass. The Industrial Revolution of the 18th century witnessed a still greater development, and almost every branch of the manufacturing industry was in some way affected by the remarkable inventions of the age. The processes of the weaving industry and the manufacture of iron were almost totally revolutionized. With the introduction of steam power it was no longer necessary for the great industries to locate upon watercourses and thus the manufacturing interests spread widely over the entire country. Cotton had surpassed wool by the middle of the 19th century, and Lancashire is now the great center of that industry. The brewing industry is important, as also is the manufacture of machines and metalware in northern England. The industrial history of modern England has been largely one of readjustment of the social and political life of the laboring classes and a fuller recognition of the rights of labor.
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. The aim of England has always been commercial supremacy and an effort to establish trade on a secure foundation. To this end the country has directed all its energies to secure colonial expansion and the establishment of naval supremacy. Natural conditions have been largely in its favor, and its strategic central position made it an important connecting point between Continental trade and trade beyond the seas. Before the reign of Queen Elizabeth, however, the trade was primarily in foreign hands, but with the establishment of large commercial companiesthe East India, Levant, Bermuda, Hudson's Bay and the Virginia all tins was changed. Imports are now increasing more rapidly than exports in imports Great Britain leads the world by half it is a close rival of the United States, however, in export trade. Cotton and woolen goods lead the exports the imports are metals, wheat, corn, tea and gold. England is now a network of canals, of which the largest is the Manchester Ship Canal, completed in 1894. Others are the Gloucester, Exeter and Berkeley, and the rivers Severn, Thames, Weaver and Aire have been canalized. Great importance has been attached to these inland waterways, which havenot to any large extent been superseded by the recent heavy railroad construction. Road making has been improved through the methods effected by McAdam and Telford, and the roads which are now controlled by rural district councils are no longer subject to tolls. Eleven large railway companies practically control the mileage of the country, which in 1905 exceeded 22,846 for the United Kingdom. For a short time the tramways fell into disuse with the rapid development of the railway system, but they have been reinstated, modeled upon the American system. They are not, however, used to such a large extent in the cities as are carriages and cabs.
EDUCATION AND RELIGION. Provisions for a public school system were not made in England and Wales until the beginning of the 19th century. The Elementary Education Act, passed in 1870, now forms the basis of the educational system of the country, although it has been modified by the Education Act of 1902 See
EDUCATION, NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF, subhead Great Britain. There is an established State Church of England, which in membership leads the dissenting churches by a slight majority. Its faith is the Protestant Episcopal. Throughout Great Britain there are large numbers of Roman Catholics, Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Hebrews, etc.
POPULATION. The density of population in England is estimated at 606 inhabitants to the square mile. In 1911 the population, including Whales, was 36,075,269. There has been of late a decrease in the birth rate and the death rate, but a marked increase in immigration, chiefly from other parts of the kingdom. The emigration is principally to the United States. A larger per cent of the urban population is found in England than in any other country.
CITIES. The large cities of England include London the capital, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Bradford, Leicester, Portsmouth and Brighton, all with a population of over 120,000.
HISTORY. Cassar invaded Britain in 55 B. C., and the island was annexed to the Roman Empire during the reign of Claudius in 43 A. D. and finally reduced by Agricola in 80 A. D. The Romans introduced Christianity, built roads and civilized the country, especially in the southern part. The next invaders of England, who were chiefly from Denmark, were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. From the first two we have the term Anglo-Saxon, while the Angles gave their name to the country Angleland became later abbreviated to England. In 595 Christianity was again introduced by St. Augustine, and 90 years later the old religion had passed away. This brought the land in touch with the civilization of the Continent and the Church of Rome. For centuries the land was divided into many petty kingdoms, but in 827 Egbert succeeded in holding a large part of the country. The Danes began their invasions a little later and for 200 years they fought for control. At last Alfred the Great drove them north of a line running from London to Chester and forced Christianity upon them. Canute, a Danish king, gained the power in 1017, but the Saxon line was restored later and maintained until the Norman Conquest in 1066. See HASTINGS, BATTLE OF.
Norman kings ruled the land for 69 years. This conquest enlarged the industrial life by the coming of many foreigners with new trades, while the somewhat stolid Saxon character was enriched by union with the brilliant and versatile Norman. Henry II 1154-1189, the first of the Plantagenet line, reformed the royal courts. He made trial by jury the law of the land, and the decisions of his judges became the basis of the English common law. The rising power of the barons wrested the Magna Charta from John in 1215 See MAGNA CHARTA.
Simon de Montfort led a successful rebellion of the barons against Henry VI, and later, in 1265, his reforms led to the entrance of the commons into the government. During the reign of Edward I 1274-1307 Wales was joined to England and the long struggle with Scotland began. At the Battle of Bannockburn, during the reign of his son, Edward II 1307-1327, the Scots won their independence See WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM BRLCE, ROUERT.
Edward VI laid claim to the throne of France by inheritance through his mother, and won brilliant but fruitless victories on French soil See HUNDRED YEARS WAR. These wars united the Normans and Saxons into one people, the English. Another great advantage gained was that the power of Parliament was increased, as Edward granted constitutional rights in return for the means to carry on his wars.
Richard II 1327-1399, a weak king, was deposed and gave way to Henry IV 1399-1413, first of the line of Lancaster, whose reign was marked by great advancement in constitutional government.
Henry V 1413-1422, his son, carried on the war with France so successfully that he forced the French to sign a treaty wherein he was recognized as the successor of the mad King Charles VI. Henry died while still a young man, and the French, aroused by Joan of Arc, drove the English from the country See JOAN OF ARC.
The long war called the Wars of the Roses began in the reign of Henry VI 1422-1461, a weak king, who was deposed.
Edward IV 1461-1483, first of the House of York, succeeded him. Soon after his death.
Richard VI 1483-1485 usurped the throne and was defeated in the Battle of Bosworth by the Earl of Richmond, who reigned as Henry VII 1485-1509. The ruin and extinction of many noble families by the wars left the King almost free rein in government, and the Tudor sovereigns, of whom he was the first, were practically absolute rulers.
Henry VIII 1509-1547, his son, favored the new learning See RENAISSANCE, and precipitated the Reformation in England See REFORMATION, THE. He declared himself head of the Church of England because the Pope refused to grant him a divorce from his first wife, Catharine of Aragon, but he left the doctrines untouched. He wisely, though rather unwillingly, followed the advice of his minister, Cardinal Wolsey, in the still modern policy of not interfering in European affairs except to maintain a balance of power. The doctrines of the Reformation gained ground during the reign of Edward VI 1547-1553, but there was a Catholic reaction under his sister, Mary 1553-1558.
When Elizabeth 1558-1603, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, came to the throne, she was supported by the Protestants. She endeavored to secure uniformity of worship, with herself as the head of the Church of England. The defeat of the Armada, a fleet sent by Philip II of Spain to reduce England to papal submission, strengthened the Protestant cause and increased the growing sense of nationality. This was the golden age of English literature, while English adventurers, who were half pirates, half patriots, explored the seas. Ireland was wholly subdued during Elizabeth's reign. See ELIZABETH MARY STUART SPANISH ARMADA, THE.
James VI of Scotland succeeded Elizabeth as James I of England 1603-1625. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots. Although the crowns of the two countries were united, each country continued to have its own legislative body. James VI had much trouble in his attempt to rule without regard to constitutional law. The contest grew even more bitter between his son, Charles I 1625-1649 and Parliament, until it flamed forth into civil war See CHARLES I. He was defeated, convicted of treason and executed in 1649. By 1653 Oliver Cromwell had made himself lord protector, and under his firm rule England had peace within, while she won the respect of the nations of Europe See CROMWELL, OLIVER. Cromwell's son, Richard, was not fitted to rule and had no liking for the task. Six months after Cromwell's death Charles II 1660-1685, son of Charles I, was recalled and received an enthusiastic welcome from the English people. He shamefully received money from the French king, dragging England down from the high place which she had held under Cromwell to that of a mere satellite of France. His corrupt court and dissolute life were overlooked in the general joy of possessing a king of the old line once more. His brother, James II 1685-1688, was a Catholic, and his arbitrary rule, with his efforts to establish his faith, led the people to rise in revolt and drive him from the kingdom. His daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange 1689-1702, were invited to rule and were crowned after they had signed the famous Bill of Rights See BILL OF RIGHTS.
Constitutional government made further progress by a law making the king's ministers responsible to Parliament. William of Orange did effectual work in thwarting the ambitious scheme of Louis XIV. Mary's sister Anne 1702-1714 had a reign brilliant with military victories gained by Marlborough in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1707 the legislatures of England and Scotland were united. The further history of England is treated in the article.
