Germany
From Encyclopediak
Germany, a country of central Europe, bounded on the north by the North Sea, Denmark and the Baltic Sea on the east by Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, and Austria on the south by Czecho-Slovakia, Austria, and Switzerland on the west by France, Luxemburg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The province of East Prussia occupies a peculiar position in regard to the rest of the Republic since it is almost surrounded bv Poland and is separated from the main body of Germany by the free area of Danzig and the northward projecting arm of West Poland. In area, present Germany comprises very nearly 171,000 square miles and contains an estimated population of 58,000,000. The line of greatest length extends from southwest to northeast, about 675 miles.
THE COUNTRY. The topography of Germany falls naturally into three main divisions the highlands of the southern part, the secondary mountains or highland area of the center, and the lowlands in the northern part. Highlands. The Alps do not extend far into Germany. Along the borders of Bavaria the elevation of the highest peaks reach into the region of perpetual snow. The Alpine foreland averages 1600 ft. in height, and forms the German part of the Danube basin. The central highland region extends from the Carpathians to the Rhine and contains numerous ranges, such as the Riesenge-birge, Vosges, Harz and Erzgebirge. Schneekoppe in the Riesengebirge reaches 5266 ft., and is the highest elevation. The valleys are shallow, having been filled by the sediment which ice and constant denudation have removed from the mountains. The general character of the southern part of Germany is broken with ranges of forest clad hills and intervening fertile valleys. Lowlands. The northern plain of Germany is uniformly low, and merges gradually into the lowlands of Netherlands and the plain of Russia on each side. The slope of the country is to the north and northwest, and along the shores of the North Sea there is a low coastal plain. There are numerous sand dunes, but where they do not serve as sufficient protection against the approaching waters it has been found necessary to construct dikes, or sea walls, frequently referred to as the "golden hoop." The good harbors are few and the important ports include Hamburg, Bremen, Liibeck, Kiel and Stettin.
RIVERS AND LAKES. There are two river systems of Germany, the northern and the southern, for which the Central Highlands form the watershed. The Rhine is the only stream which crosses these highlands and binds together the two divisions. Its main course is through Germany, but it belongs also to Switzerland, where it finds its source, and to Holland, a country formed by its delta. The Danube drains the waters of the southwestern part of Germany into the Black Sea. The Weser, the Elbe and the Ems flow into the North Sea the Oder Vistula, Pregel and Memel fall into the Baltic. The lakes of the Alpine forelands reveal distant traces of glacial origin and appear only in those parts which were covered by the immense ice sheet that descended from the Alps at the time of the Great Ice Age. In the northern lowlands are shallow shore lakes the Central Highlands have none of significance.
CLIMATE. The chief climatic differences of Germany are rather between the east and the west than between the north and the south, for the higher altitude of the south counteracts the differences that would naturally arise as a result of the variation in latitude. The climate of western Germany resembles, in general, that of France, and is fairly mild in winter and temperate in summer. In the east it becomes continental, and is severe except near the coast, where it is tempered by the Baltic Sea. The heaviest rainfall is in the mountainous regions. The maximum precipitation is about 28 inches.
THE PEOPLE. The population of Germany possess ethnic unity. In the days of the empire, there was a Polish element in eastern Germany that persistently clung to its language. But that territory is now a part of New Poland. Ninety per cent of the Germans of Europe are citizens of Germany, Austria being the only other German nation. In Germany itself there are only slight dialectical differences between the inhabitants of North and South Germany, in other words,low and high German, and there are only slight physical differencesas between Bavarians and the Saxons, survival of tribal variations in early times. Among the slightly different ethnic strands that unitedly compose the German people the most noticeable are the Saxons, the Bavarians, and the Prussians. The common race or subrace from which all the people of Germany diverged was the Teuton, the people that in very early times inhabited that part of Europe lying to the north of the Alps, west of the Oder to the Rhine, vaguely known by the Romans as Germania. The Saxons are almost pure Teutons. They occupy one of the most fertile regions of Germany. The Bavarians are racially the most composite people of Germany, being descended from Slavs, earlier Celtic people, and Teutonic tribes that entered the country from the east and were known as Baivari. The Prussians are the most important element of the German population. Their original home was East Prussia and they were near kindred to the Lithuanians and the Letts. They derive their name from the Borussi, one of the three cognate tribes living in that section at the opening of our era. In the tenth century they were on the lowlands of the Oder, Vistula, and the Nie-man. In the process of time they became the most powerful group among the Germans.
MINERAL AND FOREST WEALTH. Having lost the rich iron fields of Alsace-Lorraine and control of the coal fields of the Saar Basin, in the western part of the Palatinate, the mineral production of the Republic will not be as noticeable as were those of the Empire. But there are still rich deposits of coal in Westphalia, some in Upper Silesia, Saxony, and Bavaria. Lignite is produced in many sections and, made into bricketts, is a valuable products. The known iron fields are not large. Three-fourths of all the iron formerly produced came from Alsace, now a part of France. The silver mines, however, are among the richest in Europe, and are found chiefly in the highland sections of Prussia and Saxony. Other mineral deposits include rock salt, potash salt, petroleumin limited quantities manganese, sulphur, alphalt, nickel, copper, bismuth, zinc and lead. One-fourth of Germany is covered with forests, as carefully attended to as any field crop, since forestry is a science. In the west the forests are composed of leaf trees, of which the beech is the principal representative. Further east and in the more rugged sections the conifers, pines and fir treesabound. The Black Forestan extensive region across the Rhine opposite Alsace, is so named because it contains a wealth of evergreen trees.
AGRICULTURE. Up to the time of the middle of the 19th century, Germany was pre-eminently an agricultural country. About one-third of the population is now engaged in the pursuit of agriculture which is pursued scientifically. Improved methods of cultivation and increased use of machinery have advanced productivity. The river valleys of the south and west are most fertile. Large crops of cereals and potatoes are raised annually. The production of corn is limited exclusively to the south. Wheat, oats, rye and barley grow in all parts of the country. Other products are flax, hemp, hops, and tobacco. The vine, grown principally in the valleys of the Main and the Saale, the Rhine and the Moselle, yield many million gallons annually. The land is divided among large landowners, who control immense estates, but many peasants have farms averaging only about five acres in size, used as garden plots. About 86 per cent of the land is worked by owners. Stock breeding is an important industry, and ample opportunity for grazing is afforded by the rich meadows on the marshes bordering the North Sea. The horses bred in Mecklenburg, Hanover and other provinces enjoy a wide reputation. One of the most important agricultural products is sugar beets. In fact, Germany was the home of sugar beet culture. The greatest attention is given to the scientific development of the beet. The selection of mother beets for seed purposes is made with great care.
MANUFACTURES. In the closing years of the Empire Germany was making wonderful advance as a manufacturing nation. But the Republic has lost the rich manufacturing field of the tip of Upper Silesia, her colonies are a thing of the past, her navy is destroyed and much of her merchant marine has been given up. One great field of industry the making of cannons and implements of war, formerly of great importanceis forbidden. But the very inertia of past activity enables Germany to take a prominent role among manufacturing nations. The clothing industry is very important and occupies the larger proportion of the laboring population. A close second is the textile industry, the oldest and most important industrial art of the country. Manufacturers of cotton, silk, linen, and flax are prominent industries. Other industries are brewing, printing, type founding, the manufacturing of musical instruments, silver, gold and jewelry work, rubber and gutta-percha goods, clocks and glass and pottery ware. Before the war, the chemical industry was almost a German monopoly and the manufacture of drugs, rare chemicals and dyes was very important. Forced by the necessities of war, other nations, especially the United States, learned the secret and will dispute that field in the future. Germany formerly supplied a large part of the world's potash, but other sources of supply have been found in the United States.
COMMERCE. Germany made wonderful advance in international trade during the fifty years of peace the Empire enjoyed, in fact, her foreign trade increased four-fold. Foreign commerce is a matter of scientific investigation. The needs of foreign nations are studied banking facilities are arranged, methods of shipment are considered and her salesmen are educated for their work. Foremost among her imports are cotton, wheat, lumber, copper, petroleum, lard, maize, machinery, meat and dried fruits. The exports consist principally of textiles, chemicals, iron and steel products, scientific instruments, jewelry, malt liquors, small wares and gold and silver wares.
TRANSPORTATION. The railroad system of Germany is the most extensive in Europe,about 30,000 miles. Built with an eye for military needs, every important point in the republic can be reached from the capital in 24 hours. The entire system 1159 is under the control of the general government at least for all of the interstate lines. All can be taken under such control in times of need. Some lines are directly controlled by the states in which they are situated. The inland water transportation routes were worked out scientifically for purposes of both peace and war, and now advance the interests of the Republic. The principal rivers are navigable for considerable distances. Then canals connect many of them. Thus the Ludwig canal unites the Danube with the Main in Bavaria the Plauen Canal connects the Elbe with the Havel the Eider Canal joins the Eider River and the Kiel. Canals enable water-borne commerce to pass from Berlin to Baltic sea ports from Hamburg to the Rhine cities.
GOVERNMENT. Germany was provisionally organized as a republic in November, 1918. The constitution was adopted July 31, 1919. Provisions were made tor organizing the various grand duchies, duchies, and principalities of the former Empire into more suitably arranged divisions. At present the four principal states are Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Saxony, and Prussia. Each German state must have a republican form of government. All officials are elected on the basis of universal, direct and secret balloting. It will be noted that women's suffrage prevails in Germany. The Congress of the Republic consists of two chambers. The lower house is the Reichstag. The members are elected from the German states on the basis of population. The upper house is the National Council or Reichsrat. The members represent the German states. Every state has at least one member, and other members on a basis of population. No state can have more than two-fifths the total number of members. A national law takes precedence over state laws, but in all matters affecting the respective states, the states themselves exercise the powers of government. Provisions are made for a referendum of important legislative acts if it be desired. The president is elected by universal suffrage for a term of seven years. He may be deposed from office before the expiration of his term, if the Reichstag by a two-thirds vote so order. In the matter of personal rights the German citizen enjoys the liberties of the most advanced states. Liberty of press, of speech, of religion are all granted. All Germans are equal before the law. Men and women have fundamentally the same civil rights and duties. All distinctions of rank are abolished.
JUDICIARY. There is a Supreme Court that has jurisdiction in national matters and in cases between German states. Then there are various state courts that administer justice in the several states. Judges are elected for life. Military law is abolished except in times of war and on battle ship.
EDUCATION. Liberal provisions are made for education. The schools fall into two main divisions. The basic schools, or schools for all, in which attendance is compulsory unless the pupils attend popular schools, which are, broadly speaking, parochial schools. The public schools are followed by intermediate and high schools. The popular schools are followed by technical and continuation schools. In both instances attendance continues to the eighteenth year. Tuition and books are free. In case the parents need assistance in order to give children the benefit of an education such aid is given by the state.
HISTORY. The present territory of Germany has been the home of the German people from extremely early times. In that territory they slowly evolved from the tribal state of society into that of modern political society. The present area of Germany, however, has in historic time always been the section whence migrating- tribes issued, pushing out in all directions, coming in contact with other branches of Aryan people in Europe,the Celts to the west, the Greco-Romans to the south, the Slavs to the east and to the southeast Finno-Ugrian people, the Huns, Magyars and Turks. But their kindred left behind in the home land remained in substantially the same sections, and were on the whole but little influenced by the people just named. So in some respects the history of the German people, their political evolution and their national ideals are peculiar to the people of Germany. The Roman Empire with which the migrating Teutonic tribes came in contact was such an impressive reality that after it had fallen in ruins, the more successful kings of the day constantly planned to rebuild it with more than its former glory. Charlemagne 742-814 succeeded in this great undertaking. He was one of the greatest statesmen, warriors and rulers that ever lived. When he died his empire extended from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, from the Atlantic to the Banks of the Danube. For his great service in behalf of the Church of Rome, he was crowned 800 A. D. by the Pope and proclaimed "Emperor and Augustus," the titles of the Roman Emperors when Rome comprised the known world. Thus a new Rome was created and for 1000 years that shadowy empire survived and for the most of that time the Emperor of Rome was also the emperor of a more or less united Germany. Through all these centuries of German history, we must bear in mind that the king was elected that the country was broken up into many independent principalities, duchies, etc., a survival from tribal society, whose ruling men, and finally whose princes formed the council of the kingdom and the electors of the king. During the five hundred years following the crowning of Charlemagne there were four different dynasties or ruling houses that furnished the rulers of Rome. They were simply the most powerful German rulers and exercised more or less centralized power over the many German states into which the independent tribes of earlier times had crystalized. If we note more particularly these dynasties it will help us to an understanding of the times. The Karling line Charlemagne was succeeded, early in the tenth century, by the Saxon line of emperors, who were also the kings of Saxony, that country being at that time the most powerful German state. Otto I of this line is considered "the greatest sovereign of the tenth century." A map of Europe of the tenth century shows a Germany almost identical with that of today, though Bohemia and Austria were included in the empire of that time. A century later 1024 we find Franconia the ruling power. The center of power had shifted to the west and south of Saxony. In 1137 the Hohenstauffen line succeeded, they were dukes of Swabia, still further to the southwest. Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II were members of this dynasty. It was customary in those days for bishops, prelates, and abbotts to have temporal possessions over which they claimed control, and here was another element of division in addition to the inheritance from tribal times. It was only the strongest and most energetic of the emperors that exercised any effective control over the multitudinous German states of his empire. When the Hohenstauffen dynasty came to an end 1254 there was no German duke or king who cared for the onerous duties of empire and for twenty years there was no central authority. It was a time of utmost confusion. Then arose a generation of robber knights who built strong castles in easily defended positions and robbed and plundered almost at will. During this time also various cities and trade guilds organized for self-protection. The most important was the Hanseatic League, At length they selected Rudolph of Hapsburg 1273, which marks the rise to power of the House of Hapsburg which played for 650 years such an important role in European hsitory, especially in German history, still more prominent in the affairs of Austria. Rudolph's rule was vigorous. He began by forcing Bohemia to acknowledge his sway, and he destroyed seventy castles of as many robber knights throughout Germany generally. He conquered Bohemia, reduced Germany to order, founded Austria, and organized Switzerland. From 1308 to 1437 the Hapsburg line was interrupted by a succession of emperors elected from various princes of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia. The most renowned one among them was Charles IV of Bohemia 1347-1348 author of the "Golden Bull" that made Frankfurt the place of election of the emperor, Aix the place of coronation, and named seven officials in Germany to serve henceforth as electors of the emperor. These seven were the princes of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony and the Palatinate of the Rhine and the archbishop of Mainz, Cologne and Treves. Notice at that date neither Austria nor Bavaria were of great Importance. The selection of Brandenburg shows the rising importance of the mark of Brandenburg. Notice also, as indicative of the times, that three of the seven electors were dignitaries of the church of Rome. Charlemagne and the early emperors rendered great service to the Church, perhaps saved it from destruction. With the passage of time, the church grew in power and differences began to appear between the church and some of the emperors. Noticeably so in the case of Henry IV 1056-1106 who "went to Conossa," Barbarossa 1156-1190 and Frederick II 1212-1250 whose brilliant reign closed in gloom, ushering in that period of confusion when no one cared to assume charge of the empire. Then came the times of the Reformation and the Hussite wars, later still the terrible times of the Thirty Years War in which Germany suffered greatly. In all the years of their history there was no such a time of gloom and despair for Germany as that which included the Thirty Years War 1618-1648. The House of Hohenzollern was the ruling house of Prussia. There is a strange parallelism between the Hohenzollern and the Hapsburg royal houses. Both took active parts in the history of Germany, both founded great empires, both met a common fate. In 1411 Frederick of Hohenzollern became Margrave of Brandenburg and so one of the seven electors of Germany. A century later the Mark of Brandenburg was united with the duchy of Prussia though the duchy was a part of Poland. By the treaty of Westphalia, Pomerania was added to the territory of Prussia. In 1701 the Duke of Prussia was allowed to assume the title of king. In 1740 Frederick the Great became king. He it was who initiated the Prussian policy of helping himself by force to surrounding territory. He wrested Upper Silesia from Austria, and took a prominent part in the successive partitions of Poland. At his death Prussia was the strongest state in north Germany and was aspiring to leadership of all the German states. One hundred years later in the days of Bismarck that leadership became a reality. As a result of the three Bismarckian Wars, Schleswig-Holstein 1864, the Seven Weeks War 1866 with Austria, resulting in the elimination of Austria from participation in the political affairs of the German states, and the Franco-German War 1870 wherein all German states except Austria united under the lead of Prussia against France. At the conclusion of that war, there was organized the first real German Empire with Prussia as the leading state and the right of succession to the imperial throne made hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern. Into that empire were gathered four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free cities, and the Reichland of Alsace-Lorraine, these twenty-six territorial units being the form finally assumed by the multitudinous German states of earlier centuries or, to trace them still further back, the modern representatives of the German tribes of prehistoric times. That empire represented the final stage of 1,000 years of evolution. It was not the shadowy revival of the Roman Empire, the fiction of which was given up in 1740, but it was a present day empire of abounding life and vigor. It took its place among the great nations of the world. It seemed as if founded on the rock and destined to stand for ages. Yet, its span of life was less than half a century. Three emperors occupied the throne: William I 1871-1888', Frederick III Cthree months of 1888, and William II who abdicated the throne November 9, 1918, when the German Empire ceased to exist. The unity of the German people, however, was not lost, and they begin a new cycle of history. See under their headings the WORLD WAR and many historical persons and places mentioned in this article.
